In this paper of "The Epistemology of Contemporary Physics" series we investigate Newton's third law and discuss and analyze its epistemological significance from some aspects with special attention to its relation to the principle of conservation of linear and angular momentum. The main issue in this investigation is the potential violations of this law according to the claims made in the literature of mainstream physics. This issue may cast a shadow on the validity of classical mechanics, and its Newtonian formulation in particular, formally and epistemologically and could have important implications and consequences on contemporary physics in general. However, what is more important about this issue from our perspective is the lack of clarity, comprehensibility and coherence in the investigation and analysis of this issue and its implications marked by the absence of appropriate conceptual and epistemological frameworks to deal with this issue properly and systematically. As a result, what we find in the literature is a collection of contradicting views which are mostly based on personal choices and preferences and selective or biased theoretical analysis with the lack of proper experimental verification and substantiation.

Milgrom's Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) correction to Newtonian gravity is shown to be equivalent to a more fundamental transformation between a non-inertial local reference frame and the fixed background of the observable universe, complying with Mach's principle. Both Newton's gravitational constant and Milgrom's MOND acceleration parameter or scale constant are substituted for the speed of light and two varying and measurable cosmological parameters under the justification of Schrödinger's and Sciama's interpretation of Mach's principle: causally connected mass and size of the universe. This Machian interpretation, free from fundamental constants and free parameters with the exception of the speed of light as the speed of causality and gravity, is based on relative field intensities of the small and large scale of the universe. The Machian MOND approximation is a necessary feature of a phenomenological theory of modified inertia which incorporates Mach's principle in agreement with galaxy rotation curves.

This article addresses several key issues with the current laws of electrodynamics, including Lorentz’s law, Faraday’s law, and the Maxwell-Ampere law, by highlighting various scenarios where these laws fail to describe physical phenomena. It also presents a case where the condition div{B}=non-zero occurs, challenging the standard belief that magnetic fields always have zero divergence. The article argues that magnetic fields, as traditionally understood, do not actually exist. Instead, effects thought to be caused by magnetic fields are simply due to electric fields (no need to include special theory of relativity). A new concept introduced in the article is the "drag property of the electric field," a previously unknown characteristic that creates the illusion of a magnetic field. Using this drag property, the article derives a set of revised electrodynamic laws that consistently apply across all situations. Additionally, it addresses the failure of the traditional atomic model and suggests a new approach. The article also challenges the idea that space is empty, proposing that space is filled with something rather than being a true vacuum. This research offers a fresh perspective on both electromagnetic theory and the nature of space.

While the original Born-Infeld model describes electrons as solutions of classical field equations, there are also several classical particle models that describe electrons as point-like particles. Along the lines of research on these models, the present work proposes a new model of point-like electrons, which represents the peak of a rotating field solution of a modified Born-Infeld field theory by a relativistic, point-like particle. This new model is compared with a recently published neo-classical model of point-like electrons in order to clarify similarities and differences.

In this paper of "The Epistemology of Contemporary Physics" series we investigate the epistemological significance and sensibility (and hence interpretability and interpretation) of classical mechanics in its Newtonian and non-Newtonian formulations. As we will see, none of these formulations provide a clear and consistent framework for understanding the physics which they represent and hence they all represent valid formalism without proper epistemology or sensible interpretation.

I would like to talk about the falsity of the theory of relativity. I understand that shouts will now begin: "How long is it possible? Alternatives again." I'll answer this. Let's argue. Just argue without insults. Those who protect Einstein, as a rule, does not provide any evidence and only call names. And their main argument: "You are a fool!" Of course, you can't argue with this. Well, seriously, let's figure it out. Critics of the theory of relativity have appeared since its inception. There has never been such a period in recent history of science when there were no critics of Einstein. Doesn't this worry anyone?! Why are there no critics of Newton and the classical mechanics and mathematical analysis he created?! Not everyone even knows why Einstein received the Nobel Prize. Many people think what kind of theory of relativity. In fact, this is not true. Einstein was given a prize for explaining the two laws of the photoelectric effect. At the same time, the Russian scientist Stoletov made a significant contribution to the research of the photoelectric effect. But in the West they prefer this don't remember. This is understandable. They rarely give Nobel Prizes to Russians. It should be noted that at first no one took the theory of relativity seriously. When Einstein was given Nobel Prize, it was said that the prize was awarded despite the dubiousness of his other theories and the presence serious objections to them. I will not list all the contradictions here. Simply because the number of given the arguments are unlikely to convince the most notorious skeptics.

This article presents a unified framework for describing the fundamental forces of gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong nuclear force using a single set of equations. By refining Newton’s classical equations with a new constant L, derived from the gravitational constant G by incorporating the speed of light squared c^2, we derive new expressions for gravitational force and orbital velocity that are inherently scalable. These equations provide a natural link between gravitational, electromagnetic, and strong nuclear interactions. Furthermore, the fine-structure constant α, a fundamental constant in quantum electrodynamics and other known constants and relationships emerge naturally from these refined equations, suggesting a profound connection between these forces. This approach opens up new avenues for exploring unified field theories and may provide a foundation for further theoretical and experimental investigations.

The Lagrange theory of particle motion in thenoninertial systems is applied to the Foucaultpendulum, isosceles triangle pendulum and the generaltriangle pendulum swinging on the rotating Earth.As an analogue, planet orbiting in the rotatinggalaxy is considered as the the giant galactic gyroscope.The Lorentz equation and the Bargmann-Michel-Telegdiequations are generalized for the rotation system.The knowledge of these equations is inevitable for the constructionof LHC where each orbital proton "feels" the Coriolis force caused by therotation of the Earth.

Beginning with a standard application of the equivalence principle, we examine a simple localized experiment inside a rocket at constant thrust. We show in this case that it is possible to distinguish between this accelerating frame and the same frame sitting stationary on the surface of a source mass causing a gravitational field. We then discuss how this result relates to the equivalence principle. We also explore how the result can converge to a relative equivalence between both frames. Finally, we discuss how this relates to broader questions of relative and absolute motion.

In quantum mechanics, students learn that angular momentum has two parts: intrinsic (or spin), and wave (or orbital) contributions. This separation is analogous to the separation of momentum into two parts when analyzing waves: intrinsic momentum associated with motion of the inertial medium, and wave momentum associated with propagation of energy by the wave. However, spin angular momentum can seem mysterious to students because, unlike the moment of momentum, it is independent of any coordinate origin. This difficulty can be overcome by teaching students the coordinate-independent definition of angular momentum density: the vector field whose curl is equal to twice the intrinsic momentum density. This definition of intrinsic angular momentum density, or spin density, is applicable in both classical and quantum physics. This paper gives specific examples illustrating how spin density describes the angular momentum of rigidly rotating objects. The relationships between spin density, velocity, and angular velocity are similar to the relationships between vector potential, magnetic field, and electric current in magnetostatics. Appreciation of the coordinate-independent description of angular momentum will remove one obstacle to students' understanding of quantum mechanics.

This paper presents an investigation into the multifaceted concept of Morse energy within complex systems. By integrating principles from coordinate calculus and kinetic theory, we explore the implications of energy distribution, conservation, and optimality.

Recently, the total momentum of a numerical field solution of a modified Born-Infeld model of electrons was found to rotate instead of being conserved as expected based on Noether's first theorem and Gauss's theorem. This work offers an explanation of this rotation, which is consistent with these theorems. Furthermore, the rotating momentum is interpreted as a classical analog to an electron's quantum-mechanical momentum, which is uncertain due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

In this paper, we show how the phenomenon of inertia can be explained in non-relativistic classical mechanics using a unified theory of gravity and inertia. As a basis, we used the inertia-free mechanics of H.J. Treder. It can implement both Mach’s principle and the idea of inertia having a gravitational origin without the shortcomings of an anisotropic inertial mass. Inertia arises from a velocity-dependent part of the gravitational potential. Thus, it will be possible to formulate classical mechanics with postulating neither the weak equivalence principle, nor a gravitational constant, nor any concept of inertial mass or inertial forces a priori. We will show that all four can be derived from the theory. The theory is valid in arbitrary accelerated frames of reference and the inertial frames are determined by all other particles in the universe, as demanded by Mach’s principle. The exact Newtonian inertial forces will appear in any non-inertial frame, for translational and rotational acceleration, showing that they are not fictitious, but real parts of the gravitational force. In the lowest order v/c of the theory, Newtonian mechanics is obtained. The corrections that appear are shown to be just the terms present in Gravitoelectromagnetism. Ultimately, explaining inertia as a gravitational effect will allow us to derive an expression for the gravitational constant, enabling us to explain the apparent weakness of gravity. Such a unified theory of gravity and inertia has profound implications for the nature of mass and structure of elementary particles, as well as the origin of relativistic and quantum effects. This suggests a very different path towards a combined theory of relativity, gravity, and quantum mechanics, as well as elementary particles. This will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

This document exposes two problems. One is low voice volume in transmission, another is poor reception when there is electromagnetic noise in the operating band. The ways to alleviate these problems have been used in my equipment.<p>Este documento expone dos problemas. Uno es el volumen bajo de la voz en transmisión. Otro es la recepción deficiente cuando hay ruido electromagnético en la banda de operación. Las formas de aliviar estos problemas han sido utilizadasen mi equipo.

It is a law of nature that gravitational and inertial mass are the same. This is know as the equivalence principle in its weak formulation. In Newtonian gravity, fields act with an instant action at distance. In this paper, we show that by adding the assumption that fields perturbations propagate at a finite velocity, this lead somehow to the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass.

A recently proposed modified Born-Infeld model of electrons includes an internal clock. De Broglie and other researchers have argued that such an internal clock may explain quantum-mechanical properties of electrons and other particles. Motivated by this hypothesis, this work proposes an interpretation of single-electron wave functions in terms of the mentioned model of electrons. Future numerical experiments that could test whether the model may be used to describe quantum-mechanical phenomena are also discussed.

We propose that the weak field sound wave derived from Newton's second law of gravitation in (2+1)-dimensional empty space-time, a linear equation, could have hidden nonlinearity.

In this paper, I attempt to suggest a model of physical genesis that excludes the idea of the big bang and proposes a different hypothesis. The basic hypothesis attributes to the cosmos a lower limit of density that cannot be be violated, since space collapses when the density reaches that limit.

This work analyzes a recently reported numerical solution to a modified Born-Infeld model of electrons by computing its energy, momentum, invariant mass, and intrinsic angular momentum. While the invariant mass is used to improve the model's Born-Infeld parameter, the computed energy and intrinsic angular momentum provide new insights into the model. Specifically, the computed energy is negative, which might be a consequence of the model describing a bound state in the form of a massive particle. The computed intrinsic angular momentum agrees with the spin of electrons within the accuracy of the numerical approximations; however, the actual predictive power of the model remains unclear because one of the parameters of the model is the reduced Compton wavelength of electrons.

Using the mass model, the article examines the thesis about the fundamental nature of the eld form of matter in physics. A eld model of inert and heavy mass is constructed and on this basis the mechanism of inertia and gravity of massive bodies is revealed. The mass model is compared with the Dirac equation.

Based on the analysis of biquaternion quadratic forms of field, it is shown that Maxwell equations arise as a consequence of the principle of conservation of the energy-momentum flow of field in space-time. It turns out that this principle presupposes the existence more general nonlinear field equations. Classical linear Maxwell equations are embedded in a special way into new nonlinear equations and are their special case. It is shown that in a number of important cases nonlinear equations, in contrast to linear ones, allow solutionsthat have a swirling energy flow. Solutions of the equations we obtained make it possible to give wave description of charged particles, common for quantum mechanics, within the framework of nonlinear classical electrodynamics. Special attention in the work is paid to the problem of dividing the field into "own" field of a charged particle and a field "external" to it. From the nonlinearfield equations follow both the classical Maxwell equations themselves and the equations of charges moving under the Lorentz force. In this way, the problem of finding nonlinear field equations that include interaction is solved. In our approach, the particle charge is electromagnetic (complex-valued), passingthrough periodically changing linear combinations of electric and magnetic charges - from purely electric to purely magnetic. In real processes, it is not the particle charge itself that plays a role, but its phase relationship with other charges and fields.

This work proposes and outlines a generalization of a modified Born-Infeld model of electrons that includes all charged leptons, i.e., electron, muon, tau, and their antiparticles. In the proposed model, all charged leptons are based on linearly scaled versions of a single field solution. Due to the nonlinear nature of the modified Born-Infeld field equations, these linearly scaled versions themselves do not satisfy the field equations. A quantized excitation is hypothesized to compensate for the nonlinear effects and satisfy the nonlinear field equations such that electron and positron correspond to the ground state of the excitation, and heavier leptons correspond to excited states. While the proposed model is assumed to be testable, an actual test is beyond the scope of this work.

Based on the results of the "Michelson—Morley" experiment and the direct measurement of the speed of light in two directions, we can conclude that the movement of the Earth in relation to the Sun and the movement of the solar system in relation to the center of the galaxy do not affect the measurement of the speed of light in the vicinity of the Earth. But on the other hand, based on results of the "Michelson—Morley" experiment and the direct measurement of the speed of light in two directions we cannot know with certainty whether the Earth's rotation around its axis affects the measurement of the speed of light in one direction. Thus, instead of the motion by which the Earth's surface moves in relation to the Sun, we will observe the angular motion by which the Earth rotates on its axis relative to distant stars. Instead of measuring the speed of light in two directions, we will measure the speed of light in one direction.

This work analyzes the interaction of a rotating field solution of a modified Born-Infeld model of electrons with a weak, low-frequency electromagnetic field. The interaction is shown to be of the same type as the Lorentz force on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field.

This work presents a modified Born-Infeld field theory and a numerical solution procedure to compute electron-like solutions of this field theory in the form of rotating waves of finite self-energy. For the well-known constants of real electrons, the computed solution results in a Born-Infeld parameter of 5x10^22 V/m, which is consistent with previous work.

Abstract Dirac, Wheeler Feynman, and Cramer proposed the electromagnetic theory idea of current element generating half retarded wave and half advanced wave. The author further refined this idea. Proposed the laws of mutual energy flow and conservation of energy. And thus established a new set of electromagnetic theories. For calculating electromagnetic wave radiation of current elements, Maxwell's electromagnetic theory requires electromagnetic radiation to meet the boundary conditions of Sliver Muller. In the author's new theory, this boundary condition is replaced by the charge of the absorber covering the infinite sphere. The author assumes that these absorbers are sinks and will generate advanced waves. The radiation of the current element is a retarded wave. This retarded wave and advanced wave form a mutual energy flow. The author believes that these mutual energy flows are photons. The sum of the energy of countless photons is the macroscopic electromagnetic radiation of the current element. This radiation should be consistent with the Poynting energy flow in classical electromagnetic theory. If the two are indeed consistent, it indicates that the two theories of electromagnetic radiation are equivalent. The author proves that the two theories are indeed equivalent. In this proof, the author also addresses an inherent loophole in Poynting's theorem. In addition, the author found that due to the introduction of sinks, both the field and potential must be compressed to the original %50. This corresponds precisely to the current generating either a %50 retarded wave or a %50 advanced wave. In this way, the author's electromagnetic theory can be seen as the lower level electromagnetic theory of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. This macroscopic electromagnetic wave is composed of countless photons. Photons are mutual energy flows, which are composed of retarded waves emitted by the sources and advanced waves emitted by the sinks.

The original Born-Infeld model of electrons has been used to describe static electrons without magnetic dipole moment. It is not obvious how to include the magnetic field of a realistic magnetic dipole moment in the original model. This short work proposes a small modification to the original model that might allow for experimentally observed values of electric charge and magnetic dipole moment of electrons.

The present article investigates whether the drag coefficient of low density objects can be determined by free fall experiments with sufficient accuracy. Among other things, the drag coefficient depends on the flow velocity, which can be controlled in wind channels experiments. Free fall experiments do not offer an experimental environment with constant flow velocity. Especially the later part of the movement gets relevantly influenced by air drag deceleration. We theoretically estimate an average sphere drag coefficient for the relevant part of the movement of falling spheres. The results are verified by examining the drag coefficient from experimental data. Finally, we determine the drag coefficient of a model rocket, which is compered to the result of the corresponding wind channel experiment.

The properties of a resonant half wavelength mode, sometimes called a 4pi mode, is investigated in a toroidal cavity of large aspect ratio. No dividing wall is used but instead the field is given a poloidal (in the direction of the smaller circumference) twist. The toroidal cavity resonator equations are derived by bending a length of cylindrical waveguide into a toroid and changing the field equations from cylindrical to local toroidal. If the toroid aspect ratio is large the errors are small but the equations must still be considered to be approximate and so in order to confirm the stability and form of the resonant modes a finite difference time domain (FDTD) program was written to model the propagation of the fields. This also confirms that no false assumptions have been made, particularly regarding how the fields behave where the two ends of the half wave join. This is believed to be the first confirmation of the existence of a half wave toroidal mode without a dividing wall. FDTD simulations of both a toroidal (in the direction of the larger circumference) and a poloidal spinning 4pi mode were also carried out. It was observed that the presence of twist would prevent either a pure toroidal or poloidal spinning mode being produced and that the poloidally spinning field produced a stable mode with both spin and angular momentum.

In this paper we introduce the idea of electric fictitious currents for the electromagnetic field. Electric fictitious currents are currents that arise in electrodynamics when we change the topology of space. We show, with a specific example, how fictitious currents may be the source of magnetic moment of a singularity.

The most elementary empirical truth associated with any experiment involving light (electromagnetic radiation) propagation is the distinction between the source (region of cause) and the detector (region of effect), i.e. ``cause/effect'' distinction, based on which one can speak of ``distance between source and detector'', ``propagation from source to detector'' and, therefore, ``action at a distance'', ``velocity of propagation''. According to EPR's completeness condition, ``cause/effect'' distinction should be taken into account in a theory that is supposed to provide explanations for such an experiment, the simplest one being the Hertz experiment. Then, in principle, one can decide whether ``cause before effect'' or ``cause after effect'' i.e. the logic of causality remains decidable. I show that, working with Maxwell's equations and ``cause/effect'' distinction to explain Hertz experiment, Poynting's theorem is unprovable. It is provable if and only if ``cause/effect'' distinction is erased by choice through an act of free will, but the logic of causality becomes undecidable. The current theoretical foundation behind the hypothesis of `light propagation' comes into question as theoretical optics is founded upon Maxwell's equations and Poynting's theorem. A revisit to the foundations of electrodynamics, with an emphasis on the interplay among logic, language and operation, seems necessary and motivated.

There was established a sequence of physical processes forming the cause-and-effect relationship between the observed alternating poloidal magnetic field of the Sun and a non-electromagnetic factor external to the Sun. It has been shown that nonuniformity of the Sun's orbital motion about the Solar system barycenter promotes emergence inside the Sun of the conditions for generation of the alternating poloidal component of the Sun's magnetosphere having a period of about 20 years. Keywords: Sun's poloidal magnetic field, inversion, flip, Jupiter, Saturn.

The English idiom "Where there’s a will, there’s a way" means that if someone really wants to do something, she or he will find a way to do it.

In this pedagogical article, we elucidate on the direct derivation of the classical non-relativistic Rutherford scattering cross section, differential, in the laboratory frame, of two electrons, a la relativistic quantum mechanics as presented in the book of Bjorken and Drell.

Solamente por curiosidad, arrollé alambre envainado sobre la carcaza de cada pastilla. Denomino pastilla al dispositivo sensible que capta en forma electromagnética las vibraciones de las cuerdas. El bajo tiene dos pastillas y ambas carcazas están envueltas por el mismo alambre, sin ser cortado. Esto equivale a construir sobre cada carcaza un bobinado individual y después conectarlos en serie. Después de envolver ambas carcazas quedan libres los dos extremos del alambre. Antes de conectar algo entre ellos probé el instrumento y noté un cambio en el sonido. Es decir que sin colocar algo material para cerrar el circuito se verifica una acción efectiva, audible aunque no es intensa. Después construí una bobina y la puse en serie con un capacitor. Conectando esta serie entre ambos extremos libres del alambre que envuelve a las pastillas cerré el circuito. Modificando iterativamente la bobina y probando capacitores de valores distintos llegué a una condición que exhibió una acción muy evidente, que optimizó el comportamiento del bajo. Los detalles están en el desarrollo de este documento.<p>Just out of curiosity, I wrapped sheathed wire over the housing of each pickup. This is the name given to the sensitive device that electromagnetically captures the vibrations of the strings. The bass has two pickups and both cases are wrapped by the same wire, without being cut. This is equivalent to building an individual winding on each case and then connecting them in series. After wrapping both casings, the two ends of the wire remain free. Before connecting anything between them I tested the instrumentand noticed a change in sound. That is to say that without placing something material to close the circuit, an effective action is verified, audible although it is not intense. Then I built a coil and put it in series with a capacitor. Connecting this series between both free ends of the wire that surrounds the pickups I closed the circuit. Iteratively modifying the coil and trying capacitors of different values, I arrived at a condition that exhibited a very evident action, which optimized the behavior of the bass. The details are in the development of this document.

This work presents a modified Born-Infeld field theory that might include electron-like solutions in the form of rotating waves of finite self-energy. Preliminary numerical experiments suggest that the proposed model might show quantum mechanical features in a classical field theory.

In this work we have found out such a sequence of physical processes which allowed us to reveal the cause-and-effect relationship between the observed poloidal alternating magnetic field of the Sun and a factor of a non-electromagnetic nature, which is external to the Sun. Specific character of the Sun's orbital motion about the Solar system barycenter promotes emergence inside the Sun of the conditions necessary for generation of the observed poloidal component of the Sun's magnetosphere without participation of the Sun's own rotation. Using a pendulum as a model, we have shown in what way the external impact upon the Sun initiates within the Sun itself forced oscillations which are just those that induce the poloidal alternating magnetic field; in its turn, this magnetic field defines the cyclic character of the Wolf numbers. We have also revealed a process which allowed putting into consideration a natural event-time scale that may be quite useful in planning the observations and also in systematizing and synchronizing fragments of the available time series of observations manifesting the Sun's poloidal magnetic field about 20 years in period. Keywords: Sun's poloidal magnetic field, inversion, pole flip, barycenter, Jupiter, Saturn, Wolf numbers

ENGLISH: It is a circuit that uses two transistors in a novel configuration. Minimize distortion to the point of being undetectable. It combines the properties of a preamplifier and an operational amplifier. The output level is regulated by the gain control and not by a volume potentiometer. It has two inputs, one non-inverting and one inverting. The latter makes it possible to create, for example, a very simple and very pure mixer. As a preamplifier it is ideal for microphones because the output signal is strictly identical in shape to the input signal./////////ESPAÑOL: Es un circuito que utiliza dos transistores en una configuración novedosa. Minimiza la distorsión hasta el extremo de ser indetectable. Combina las propiedades de un preamplificador y de un amplificador operacional. El nivel de salida está regulado por el control de ganancia y no por un potenciómetro de volumen. Tiene dos entradas, una no inversora y otra inversora. Esta última permite crear, por ejemplo, un mezclador muy simple y muy puro. Como pramplificador es ideal para micrófono porque la señal de salida es, en forma, rigurosamente idéntica a la señal de entrada.

In this paper, the higher-order terms are evaluated for an electric potential field equation derived from a unified classical electrostatic-gravitational field theory. It is shown that the higher order terms represent higher order gravitational interactions arising due to gravity coupling to itself. It is shown that in the low-voltage limit, these approximately correspond to the expected magnitude and sign expected from classical gravitation. In the high-voltage limit, these terms are of a hyperbolic trigonometric form and appear to have a finite sum. This strongly suggests that this theory will not require re-normalization even in higher dimensions. After evaluation of the mathematics, a new mechanistic explanation for these self-gravitation terms is also provided from the new theory.

Among the different models of representation of the universe, the Friedmann positive curvature model often comes up. It is a model using the universal, harmonious and simple shape of the sphere, therefore a closed but unlimited universe, uniform in all its directions. The figure on the right is a simplified representation. However, to properly contain the universe, this shape must have one dimension more than the conventional sphere of our 3D world (called 2-sphere in mathematics). It is therefore a 3-sphere, which takes one dimension more than the 2-sphere: its surface becomes a hyper-surface, therefore a volume and the volume it occupies becomes a space with 4 Euclideandimensions. Thus, in this model, the universe resides in the hypersurface of the 3-sphere and requires 4D space to unfold.We also know that the universe is essentially made up of vacuum at an extremely low average density of around 1 atom/m³. In this context, the legitimate question that can be asked is how the universe, being so empty, can ensure its cohesion in the even emptier 4D space which surrounds it both inside and outside of its hyper-surface. The present article responds to this by hypothesizing a solid and perfectly elastic hyper-membrane which occupies the entire hyper-surface of the 3-sphere and which thus serves as a support structure for the universe. Once well characterized, this hypermembrane, named here Θ-Brane, can then serve as a support for the universe itself but also as a support for the propagation of its waves, for the movement of its matter without drag effect, and finally support its various energy fields and all this, without contradiction with the two postulates of Special Relativity.Furthermore, the presence of this hyper-membrane makes it possible to provide explanations for matter-antimatter asymmetry, the exclusive helicity of neutrinos-antineutrinos, gravitation based on quantum fluctuations of the vacuum and more.

We study the question that does classical electromagnetic field have intrinsic angular momentum, and we find a surprising result that it is not possible to answer this question. We also go through how the quantity "epsilon0 E cross product A" can be used as the intrinsic angular momentum density of classical electromagnetic field.

From the lectures for an advanced course on celestial mechanics which Prof. Richard Moeckel gave in Trieste in 1994 on the topic - Central configurations of the n-body problem - that was one of his favorites, I have decided to develop a part of it as an introduction course for the undergraduate students where I have added more details (gray boxes) of the proofs to be understood by undergraduate students.It is based on the handwritten notes from the 1994 Trieste course. Part I of the notes concerns 3 chapters :- chapter 1: introduction,- chapter 2: the two-body problem,- chapter 3: special solutions to the n body problem.

The conservation law of energy asserts that the total energy must always remain constant, even when its form changes. This conservation law also holds in electromagnetism (optics), where the total energy of light incident on and output from a system must be equal. However, we have found a phenomenon in which the total energy of the interference light emitted from a multiple-reflection interferometer is greater than the energy of the incident light. This increase is stable in time and can be explained by wave optics. The energy conservation law is valid when averaged over a region sufficiently wider than the interference fringe period, but when the beam width is narrower than the fringe period, the total light intensity increases or decreases and the conservation law does not hold.

Light emitted from a multiple reflection device using a mirror and a half-mirror does not show interference fringes when the relative angle between the mirrors is zero, and the energy of the incident light and the outgoing light coincide at each point. On the other hand, when the relative angle is non-zero, interference fringes are observed depending on the angle. We have reported that the total energy of the incident and outgoing beams do not match (that is, the law of conservation of energy does not hold) when the relative angle is small (the fringe spacing is wide) and the incident beam width is narrow. Furthermore, the light beam emitted from this multiple reflector has the interesting property of changing in intensity as it propagates. We have experimentally confirmed this change.

This paper demonstrates why — regarding fuel consumption — it is more senseful to perform stationkeeping at Lagrange point as often as possible, i.e. when thrust needed is greater than 12 cm/s for the James Webb Space Telescope. Fuel can be saved by striving to correct the orbit each time as early as manageable. With such change, the conservative estimate for the mission lifetime increase is over 12%.

This papers presents an analytical integration for the Ampere's force law. It then makes estimations of the operational characteristics of the railgun based on the Ampere's force law. Operating at a current of 300kA, a 4m long tripled railgun may fire a 1kg projectile reaching an exit speed of 2020m/s (Mac 5.9) with kinetic energy of 2.04MJ. It is estimated that the ohmic loss is just about 3% of the kinetic energy. When the operation of the railgun is analyzed based on the Lorentz magnetic force, there is difficulty in identifying the precise seat of the railgun recoil. In contrast, the analysis done based on the Ampere's force law could precisely specify the seat of recoil of the railgun; it is at the `empty space' in the interface separating the atoms of the rails and the atoms of the gun breech. During firing, contrary to expectation, the rails would be under tension and not compression.

In this article, theoretical and experimental values of a simple pendulum and an inelastic collision oftwo pendulums are calculated, through numerical methods with the python language, and analysis of the experimental data. An accuracy of 98.46% for the collision time and 97.78% for the speed during impact is demonstrated.

This paper continues with the development of the author's aether Simple Unified Theory (SUT) and the wave-pulse theory of light. The theory may be called photoelectricity, a replacement for electromagnetism based on Maxwell's equations. In contemporary electromagnetism, energy transmission in current carrying conductors is explained based on the Poynting theory; that it is the surrounding magnetic fields of the conductor which is responsible for energy transmission. This paper argues that such an explanation is not convincing. It is hypothesized that the actual mechanism of energy transmission is through apulses(aether wave pulses, almost photon-like), being absorbed and remitted within the conductors. This is the basis of the novel concept of the energy current in electrical circuit. This paper also touches on various related aspects of physics including the Ampere's force law. An integration method for Ampere's forces is explained. Various experiments involving the Ampere's longitudinal forces have been re-examined. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction for the AC alternators is explained as aether apulses being emitted within the magnets that jump the air gap entering into the armature winding of the alternator; this is the energy current source for the conversion from mechanical to electrical energy in AC alternators.

The postulate of tired light can be cast in terms of an elementary quantum of energy lost from a photon during each cycle. The uncertaintyin time associated with the quantum of energy is the Hubble time. Given uncertainty at this cosmological scale, it is argued that complementarity between received photon energy and observed distant time dilation at the source overcomes a common objection to tired light. Observed supernova redshift, luminosity distance, and distant time dilation tend to support two possibilities for a quantum interpretation of the redshift.

El tema de las antenas escalares fue tratado en un documento previo, situado en la dirección siguiente. https://vixra.org/abs/2205.0017 Este documento informa la relación física y matemática íntima entre ambos tipos de antenas, tradicionales y escalaresd, regida por la ortogonalidad y asociada a un triángulo rectángulo, que adquiere un significado esclarecedor. <p> The topic of scalar antennas was covered in a previous paper, located at the following address. https://vixra.org/abs/2205.0017 This document reports the intimate physical and mathematical relationship between both types of antennas, traditional and scalar, governed by orthogonality and associated with a right triangle, which acquires an illuminating meaning.

Puede un cambio de variable alterar la información contenida en una teoría ? En caso de respuesta afirmativa, es erónea la última parte de este documento. Rn caso de respuesta negativa, está implícito en la Relatividad Especial un valor de velocidad preciso, determinado unívocamente por la teoría. Ese valor es 0.74872022894058(...) C . ¿ Qué consecuencias epistemológicas tendría un valor específico de velocidad determinado por la estructura de la teoría ? La Relativdad Especial se basa en postulados propios. Deberían ser revisados en caso de ser inaceptable una velocidad específica distinta de C implícita en el esquema. <p> Can a variable change alter a theory? In case of affirmative answer, the final part of this document is wrong. In case of negative answer, is implied in the Special Relativity an accurate velocity value, equal to 0.7487202289405(...) C , uniquelly determined by the theory.} What epistemological consequences would a specific speed value determined by the structure of the theory have? Special Relativity is based on its own postulates. They should be reviewed if a specific velocity value, unequal to C, implicit in the schema is unacceptable.

This paper presents a new formula for the gravitational force – formula (1). It is based on the following reaction of an Electron Antineutrino with a Proton: ̃ve + p+ → n + e+ and is only the principal component of the possible gravitational forces that may exist in the Universe. I assume that all interactions that are weak and do not belong to these four types of known interactions and decrease with the square of the distance, can also be considered as gravitational interactions. Gravity is a product of the so-called weak interactions, if one interprets this reaction and the formula for the gravitational force associated with it correctly. The new formula uses the numerical values measured by Cowan and Reines in an experiment conducted by these two physicists with electron antineutrinos to determine the probability of this above reaction occurring. In the new formula, there is a constant value for the energy density of relic electron antineutrinos which, however, only to a limited extent guarantees the stability of the gravitational forces, since there are neutrino sources in the Universe and even in our immediate surroundings, such as the Sun or even nuclear reactors. The gravitational field is not a fictitious property of space, but is directly related to the transfer of momentum and energy of neutrinos to particles of matter. I assume that the mathematical formulas used in this work are understandable to anyone with some interest in mathematics and physics.

Many philosophers believe that our world can only be described accurately using mathematical equations. Mathematical equations allow a strictly defined interpretation that can serve as a reflection, or picture, of reality in the Universe, and it is supposed that this is the only possible and allowed view of our world. However, it is possible to find mathematical equations that allow the calculation of certain numerical values related to our physical world, not found, however, in physics or astrophysics books. These equations presumably allow for a new different interpretation of the reality of our Universe. But what should we think about it, if a single property, e.g. the gravitational force, could be calculated using different mathematical equations? Here a mathematical formula is presented from which it is possible to calculate the energy density of solar radiation on the surface of the Sun and thus the total power of the Sun and this without using the Solar Constant. There is as yet no theoretical model describing any physical phenomena from which this formula would follow. One possible conclusion from this formula is that physical constants like the Proton mass or the Gravitational Constant are not constants in the Universe and are not even constants in the Milky Way galaxy in which the Sun is located. I assume that the mathematical formulae presented here are understandable to most people interested in physics. At the same time it is one of the following three works "A Different Look at the Power of the Sun, "A Different Look at the Hydrogen Atom" and "A Different Look at Gravity" allowing to explain, with the help of simple mathematical equations of classical physics, the reality in our Universe more simply and comprehensibly, assuming that new models of physical phenomena will arise, from which the mathematical solutions presented here result.

The electric field in Maxwell’s equations can be written as a sum of the rotational and the irrotational electric fields. In this paper, it will be shown that Maxwell’s equations is formulated such that the permittivity of the rotational electric field is set to 1.0, and the permittivity of the irrotational electric field is commonly denoted as \epsilon_r. Faraday’s law can be reformulated in a little more general equation, so that a non-unity permittivity of the rotational electric field is possible. Although only a theoretical formulation is proposed, a way by which the permittivity of the rotational electric field can be measured is discussed.

The equivalence principle states that gravitational mass and inertial mass are two equivalent quantities, that in a gravitational field all bodies fall at the same rate during free fall in a vacuum regardless of their mass and composition. In the past, the free fall of bodies has been studied multiple times and the equivalence principle has always been confirmed so far. However, mainly solid bodies and liquids were used as test bodies in the experiments. In this experiment, in addition to a pure solid body, namely a metal disk, a solid body in hollow form filled with gas, specifically a helium balloon, has been studied during free fall in a vacuum (low vacuum). The analysis of the measured data shows a clear deviation of the measured values from the expected nominal values according to Galileo's law of falling bodies during free fall of the helium balloon and thus a violation of the equivalence principle.

Complex numbers are basic to exact science. When a flaw exists in complex numbers conceptual difficulties will arise for many subfields concerning wave mechanics. Kirchoff’s scalar diffraction theory of optics is already considered inconsistent. Nevertheless it is successfull in experiment. In our study we add the complex number inconsistency to Kirchoff diffraction and see what that does to the experimental value of the Kirchhoff diffraction theory. There are no a priori reasons to include or exclude the obtained inconsistent phase angle. Assuming that the inconsistent phase angle is excluded in nature, we were able to establish the theoretical possibility to observe a substantial diffraction despite a weak intensity point source and small wavelength.

This paper is a continuation of a previous paper of the author which explains how a chemical analysis of theratio by weight of O-16 and H-1 in plain water (the presence of different isotopes of O and H would not affect the experiment) could decide if the hypothesis of mass-energy equivalence based on E=mc2 is verified or refuted; a refutation would mean a full revival of the classical law of conservation of mass without any need of mass-energy equivalence consideration. The proposed experiment is by electrolysis of water as an aqueous solution of potassium sulfate. Oxygen produced at the anode is trapped while the hydrogen produced at the cathode are allowed to escape freely. With three weighing with an analytical balance in vacuum, the ratio of O/H could be determined with a high degree of accuracy. The mass-energy equivalence principle accepted in present day physics may be said to be the foundational assumption in present day physics. If it fails, then current high energy physics would collapse. This includes the Standard Model of particle physics widely promulgated by CERN and much of all modern physics. The irony is that mass-energy equivalence and the equation E=mc2 have never been experimentally verified. This has been explained in detail in the author’s other paper.

We consider a zero rest mass classical particle moving from infinity towards a point mass along a fixed line containing the mass. We show gravitation with only constants $c$ and $G$ with dimension does not satisfy conservation of energy.

there are two different approaches to superluminal communication around a closed loop, with one leg of the loop purportedly leading into the past. One scheme employs direct signals between a receiver in motion relative to a transmitter. This is called Method I in this paper. In the other, moving observers "hand-off" information between momentarily-adjacent observers in relative motion passing each other, which is designated Method II. It is shown that the correct application of superluminal physics in the former method clearly precludes causality violation, but it is more subtle in the latter approach. An analysis of what would be observed in a physics laboratory, compared to what is inferred from a Minkowski diagram, attests that causality violation does not occur in either method. Thus causality is not violated by superluminal communication.

As you know, precessing ellipses appear as solutions to the equations of the general theory of relativity. At the same time, it is generally accepted that in classical mechanics there are only the following equations of orbits: circles, ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas. However, precessing ellipses also appear in classical mechanics. As you know, orbital precession is observed not only when the planets move in the Solar System. The precession of the periastron of the orbit is also observed in close binary systems, the components of which have evolved into pulsars. In such systems, the masses of the components – neutron stars – are of the same order of magnitude. Consequently, they will move in similar orbits around the center of mass. The orbits will be uniformly precessing ellipses. We write down the equation of such an orbit and derive from it an expression for the force of attraction acting between bodies. As a result, it turns out that, in addition to the Newtonian force, which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies, a term appears in the expression for the force that is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance.

The aim of the following article is not to doubt about some successful American manned lunar landings since the $12$ Saturn V rockets involved in the official Apollo missions have more than enough Delta-v to achieve that goal whatever the small precise mission details. The aim of the following article is to propose some alternative scenario to the official Apollo missions data since the cold war, the deterrence strategy, the secret military, the propaganda war, the ideological war, the pressure and the stress from a space race competition could affect greatly the released official Apollo missions data. For example, only decades later we knew Yuri Gagarin have not landed inside his atmospheric re-entry capsule but with some individual parachute. To achieve that aim, we simulate or calculate the most we can and look what was the easier practical solutions at that time and check the consistency of the official Apollo missions data.

We consider the nontrivial existence, dynamics and indications of the flows when all eigenvalues of the velocity gradients are real, thus `lone', \textit{i.e.}, without forming the complex conjugate pairs which are associated to the swirls. A generic prototype is the `lone Schur flow (LSF)' whose velocity gradient tensor is uniformly of Schur form but free of complex eigenvalues. A (partial) integral-differential equation governing such LSF is established, and a semi-analytical algorithm is accordingly designed for computation. Simulated evolutions of example LSFs in 2- and 3-spaces show rich dynamics and vortical structures, but no obvious swirls (nor even the homoclinic loops in whatever distorted forms) could be found. We discovered the flux loop scenario and the anisotropic analogy of the incompressible turbulence at or close to the critical dimension $D_c =4/3$ decimated from 2-space.

На основании анализа бикватернионных квадратичных форм поля показано, что уравнения Максвелла возникают как следствие принципа сохранения потока энергии-импульса поля в пространстве-времени. При этом оказывается, что этот принцип предполагает существование более общих нелинейных уравнений поля. Классические линейные уравнения Максвелла особым образом вложены в новые нелинейные уравнения и являются их частным случаем. Показано, что в ряде важных случаев нелинейные уравнения в отличие от линейных допускают решения, обладающие закрученностью потока энергии. Решения полученных нами уравнений дают возможность волнового описания заряженных частиц в рамках нелинейной классической электродинамики. Особое внимание в работе уделяется проблеме разделения поля на «собственное» поле заряженной частицы и «внешнее» по отношению к нему поле. Из нелинейных уравнений поля следуют как сами классические уравнения Максвелла, так и уравнения движения заряда под действием силы Лоренца. Таким образом решается задача нахождения нелинейных уравнений поля, включающих в себя взаимодействие. В рамках нашего подхода заряд частицы является электромагнитным (комплекснозначным), периодически проходящим различные линейные комбинации электрического и магнитного зарядов от чисто электрического до чисто магнитного. В реальных процессах играет роль не сам заряд частицы, а его соотношение по фазе с другими зарядами и полями. <p> Based on the analysis of biquaternionic quadratic forms of the field, it is shown that Maxwell's equations arise as a consequence of the principle of conservation of the energy-momentum flux of the field in space-time. It turns out that this principle presupposes the existence of more general nonlinear field equations. The classical linear Maxwell equations are embedded in new nonlinear equations in a special way and are their special case. It is shown that, in a number of important cases, nonlinear equations, in contrast to linear ones, admit solutions with a swirling energy flux. The solutions of the equations obtained by us make it possible to describe the charged particles in the framework of nonlinear classical electrodynamics. Particular attention is paid to the problem of separating the field into the "own" field of the charged particle and the "external" field in relation to it. Both the classical Maxwell equations themselves and the equations of motion of the charge under the action of the Lorentz force follow from the nonlinear equations of the field. This solves the problem of finding nonlinear field equations that include interaction. Within the framework of our approach, the particle charge is electromagnetic (complex-valued), periodically passing through various linear combinations of electric and magnetic charges from purely electric to purely magnetic. In real processes, it is not the particle charge itself that plays a role, but its phase relationship with other charges and fields.

The magnetic force acts exclusively perpendicular to the direction of motion of a test charge, whereas the electric force does not depend on the velocity of the charge. This article provides experimental evidence that, in addition to these two forces, there is a third electromagnetic force that (i) is proportional to the velocity of the test charge and (ii) acts parallel to the direction of motion rather than perpendicular. This force cannot be explained by the Maxwell equations and the Lorentz force, since it is mathematically incompatible with this framework. However, this force is compatible with Weber electrodynamics and Ampère's original force law, as this older form of electrodynamics not only predicts the existence of such a force but also makes it possible to accurately calculate the strength of this force.

Current practice defined the front velocity of a signal as the limit of the phase velocity for infinitely high frequency. However, the present article provides evidence that the propagation velocities of signal fronts for input signals of nonzero temporal duration result from the phase velocities in the low-frequency range. In conclusion, although the impulse response propagates at the so-called front velocity, this is shown not to be true for the step response, and this aspect is shown not to represent a contradiction.

An analytical solution of the equation $\dif\,{}^\ast\dif\alpha=0$ where the 1-form $\alpha$ stands for ``vector potential'' of electromagnetic field of uniformly accelerated charge presented in the work \cite{jgp}, was obtained in an incomplete coordinate system. Incompleteness of the system used gives rise to doubts about correctness of the solution because of possible presence of extra sources of the filed beyond the chart of the covered by coordinates. A rigorous criterion of existence or non-existence of extra sources of this sort is proposed which was appliel to the solution. As a result, it is found that no extra sources beyond the chart exist and hence, the solution describes the field on uniformly accelerated charge properly. However, this fact discloses another discrepancy in foundations of the field theory.

A description of the matter and the world structure based on the action-duration change is proposed. The concept of place and spatial relations for its harmonics are introduced. The world emergence from extra-spatial noise and its development to the over-noisy spatial structure are studied. The environment hidden behind the seemingly empty space has a huge density and is the cause of electric and gravity fields. There is an endless chain of interconnected and controlled worlds. An explanation of the particle structure was proposed. Modern physical theories may be derived from this representation.

The stochastic transport equations, derived rigorously under the condition of continnum uctuations in the framework of an ensemble theory, both in dierential and integral form, are then veried by establishing an unambiguous connection between this stochastics and the associated deterministics.

An argument often used to show that the Newtonian speed of gravity is infinite is that the Newtonian field equation (rooted in the Poisson equation) has no time derivative with respect to the gravitational potential. However, as the Newton gravitational constant G has not been well understood until recently, and also due to the fact one has not understood mass in the gravity formula that well, except from the surface level, we will demonstrate that, when understood from a deeper perspective, there is likely to be a concealed time derivative of the gravitational potential in the Newton field equation. This supports our recent claim that Newtonian gravity speed is consistent with the idea that gravity moves at the speed of light, not by assumption, but from calibration, and in a way that does not conflict with the equations one can derive from Newtonian theory.

The article describes an experiment for detecting the Brown effect (also known as Biefeld–Brown effect). The essence of the effect is that a capacitor under high voltage develops a force. The paper provides measurements and calculations related to the conducted experiment as well the explanation for the origin of the force as induced by aether.

In this work it is shown how absolute simultaneity of spatially distinct events can be established by means of a general criterion based on isotropically propagating signals and how it can be consistently preserved also when operating with Lorentz-like coordinate transformations between moving frames. The specific invariance properties of these transformations of coordinates are discussed, leading to a different interpretation of the physical meaning of the transformed variables with respect to their prevailing interpretation when associated with the Lorentz transformation. On these basis, the emission hypothesis of W. Ritz is then applied to justify the outcomes of the Fizeau experiment, thanks to the introduction of an additional hypothesis regarding the influence of turbulence on the refractive index of the moving fluid. Finally, a test case to investigate the validity of either the Galilean or the Relativistic velocity composition rule is presented. Such test relies on the aberration of the light coming from celestial objects due to the motion of the observer and on the analysis of the results obtained by applying the two different formulas to process the data of the observed positions, as measured in the moving frame, in order to determine the actual un-aberrated location of the source.

In this paper I look at the experimental determination of the acceleration due to gravity \(g\) and the flow rate from my kitchen tap as suggested in a comment to a puzzle in "The Chicken From Minsk" (TCFM) using only equipment already on hand. This differs from the method proposed in TCFM in that it uses a method of taking the measurements that is practical rather than seemingly dismissing the problem of taking measurements with a wave of the hand.

In this work, we give the modern version of Euler's derivation of equations governing rigid body rotations. This derivation helps understand the rigid body rotations.

We consider the string, the left end of which is fixed and the right end of this string is in a periodic motion. We, show that the law of the action-reaction symmetry is broken during the string motion.

An unproven lagrangian generates erroneous theory. The unknown lagrangian can be validated with Hamiltonian. The invalid lagrangian can be formulated into a valid lagrangian with a three-phase process based on Euler-Lagrange equation and conservation law. The formulation process modifies the lagrangian with system invariant. The process is superior to the popular trial-and-error approach.

This article discusses the dynamics of an incompressible, isotropic elastic continuum. Starting from the Lorentz-invariant motion of defects in elastic continua (Frank 1949), MacCullagh's aether theory (1839) of an incompressible elastic solid is reconsidered. Since MacCullagh's theory, based on linear elasticity, cannot describe charges, particular attention is given to a topological defect that causes large deformations and therefore requires a nonlinear description. While such a twist disclination can take the role of a charge,the deformation field of a large number of these defects produces a microstructure of deformation related to a Cosserat continuum (1909). On this microgeometric level, a complete set of quantities can be defined that satisfies equations equivalent to Maxwell's.

Starting from Kepler's laws we can not only derive Newton's Force(F) balance equation but also the Energy(E) conservation equation. We can derive that, E=K+P, where K=Kinetic Energy and P=Potential Energy=-GMm/|r| and E=Constant. Note that, F=m(d^2r/dt^2)=mass*acceleration and F_g=-(GMm/|r|^3)r=Newton's Law of Gravity. Also we get dP/dt=-F_g.(dr/dt), a vector dot product. Here r is the position vector and |r| indicates its magnitude. Thus, we get dE/dt=[F-F_g].(dr/dt), dot product. This is true even when E is not Constant. If E=Constant then, dE/dt=[F-F_g].(dr/dt)=0. This in general means, F-F_g is perpendicular to dr/dt. Not always m(d^2r/dt^2)-F_g=0 as Newton's Universal law of Gravity is stated. Hence Newton's equation encompass only a small subset of all the phenomena covered by the equation dE/dt=0. The equation F=F_g or m(d^2r/dt^2)=-(GMm/|r|^3)r in that form is not even applicable for all 2-body problems in 2D. In general, F=Some component of F_g. Since F_g=-grad(P) we also get that, in general, F=m(d^2r/dt^2)=Some component of -gradient(P). Thus assuming F=-gradient(P) is not valid. Determining which component of F_g is causing the body to accelerate is non-trivial. The free-body diagrams are of limited use and the principle of least action(Lagrangian calculations) employ energy terms but in a much more complicated manner. We can achieve better results directly using the Energy conservation equation. Further we extend the analysis to include Lagrange type 3-body periodic orbit solutions with equilateral configuration and show that Lagrangian/Newtonian method gives some sporadic, apparently unstable solutions, where as the Energy method provides the entire set of stable elliptical orbit solutions including non-equilateral configurations. With Energy method we can also derive a condition which determines whether the 3-bodies end up in an orbit with 1 center of revolution(like in Lagrange type periodic orbits) or end up with 2 centers of revolution(like in the Sun-Earth-Moon system). We also note that the term Inertia coined by Galileo to explain the height conserving property of balls rolling down inclined planes has to be properly interpreted as energy. That is, Inertia = Energy. And we point at the need to replace Newton's Laws of Motion(and Gravity) by the Energy conservation principle. And principle of angular momentum conservation or angular velocity conservation and such.

It is stated that moving fluids can be described as fluctuating continua although their material distribution is always discontinuous. A stochastic particle transport is then considered by an imaginary ensemble of any number of equivalent turbulent fluids existing in parallel. This leads to exspectation values of the densities of turbulently transported particles. First a transport equation for a molecular self-diffusion is found. It is used as a reference for the difference between self-moving diffusing particles and transport through turbulent moving continua (e.g. aerosols). This is followed by a transport theory for longitudinal continuum fluctuations to provide an easier transition to the more complicated turbulent particle transport. The following transport equations arise: 1. -transport equation of molecular self-diffusion as partial differential equation as well as integral equation. The transition probabillity of velocities is calculated, explicitly. 2. -transport equation of a passive particle transport by longitudinal continuumfluktuations as partial differential equation as well as integral equation. The transition probabillity of velocities is calculated, explicitly. 3. -transport equation of a passive particle transport by turbulent continuum-fluktuations as partial differential equation as well as integral equation. The transition probabillity of velocities is calculated, explicitly. 2

The bremsstrahlung is calculated in case that electron current is realized by the RLC circuit. We determine the bremsstrahlung energy caused by the uniform oscillation of the RLC circuit.

Special Relativity derived by Einstein is a mathematical approach with the unphysical results of time dilation, length contraction and the invariance of the light speed. This paper presents an approach where the Lorenz transformations are build exclusively on equations with speed variables instead of the mix of space and time variables and, where the interaction with the measuring instrument is taken into consideration. The results are transformation rules between inertial frames that are free of time dilation and length contraction. The equations derived for the momentum, energy and the Doppler effect are the same as those obtained with special relativity. The present work shows the importance of including the characteristics of the measuring equipment in the chain of physical interactions to avoid unphysical results.

A stationary charge distribution in one inertial reference frame becomes a charge current in another inertial reference frame. The magnetic field described by Biot-Savart Law becomes a representation of the relative velocity between two inertial reference frames and the electric field described by Coulomb's law. The charge current in dielectric medium exhibits property similar to the light in the vacuum. Both are characterized by a pair of electric field and magnetic field in the transverse direction. The electromagnetic duality from Maxwell's equations is indeed a representation of Biot-Savart law.

Maxwell's equations are examined specifically with a segment of electric current under Biot-Savart law and a single charge under Gauss' law. The line integral of the magnetic field is verified to be different from the surface integral of the curl of magnetic field because the magnetic field of Biot-Savart law diverges. Faraday's induction law is examined by inserting a capacitor into the coil loop to measure the voltage. The electric field inside the capacitor is directly proportional to the time derivative of magnetic flux. An optional capacitor is also attached to the end of the straight segment of electric wire. The time derivative of the electric field inside the capacitor is verified to be proportional to the line integral of the magnetic field from the electric current. Multiple corrections are made to Maxwell's equations.

The divergence theorem states that the surface integral of the flux is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux. This is not true if there is singularity in the volume integral. One example is the electric field flux described by Coulomb's law. Another example is the gravitational force. Consequently, Gauss's flux theorem is not applicable to the divergence of the electric field.

Recently, during the experimental testing of basic assumptions in electrical engineering, it became apparent that ultra-low-frequency (ULF) voltage signals in coaxial cables with a length of only a few hundred meters propagate significantly faster than light. Starting point for this discovery was an experiment in which a two-channel oscilloscope is connected to a signal source via a short coaxial cable and the second input to the same signal source via a long coaxial cable. It was observed that the delay between the two channels can be for short cables and low frequencies so small that the associated phase velocity exceeds the speed of light. In order to test whether the discovered effect can be exploited to transmit information over long distances, a cable was examined in which the signal is refreshed at regular distances by buffer amplifiers. The result was that such an setup is indeed suitable for transmitting wave packets at three times the speed of light and bit rates of about 2 kbit/s over arbitrary distances. The statement that information cannot propagate faster than light is therewith clearly experimentally disproved and can therefore no longer be sustained.

This short paper proofs mathematically that the Maxwell equations are not able to explain the Maxwell-Lodge experiment. Not even if the vector potential is used instead of the magnetic induction.

During the experimental testing of basic assumptions in electrical engineering, it has become apparent that ultra-low-frequency (ULF) voltage signals in coaxial cables with a length of only a few hundred meters propagate significantly faster than light. The starting point for this discovery was an experiment in which a two-channel oscilloscope was connected to a signal source via both a short and a long coaxial cable. It was observed that the delay between the two channels for short cables and low frequencies can be so small that the associated phase velocity exceeds the speed of light by one order of magnitude. To test whether the discovered effect can be exploited to transmit information over long distances, a cable was examined in which the signal was refreshed at regular distances by buffer amplifiers. The results show that such a setup is indeed suitable for transmitting wave packets at three times the speed of light and bit rates of approximately 2 kbit/s over arbitrary distances. The statement that information cannot propagate faster than light seems to be false and can no longer be sustained.

Absorber theory published in 1945 and 1949 by Wheeler and Feynman which tells us that if the sun is put in a empty space where apart from the sun is nothing, the sun cannot shine. That means only with the source, the radiation cannot be produced. The radiation is phenomena of an action-at-a-distance. The action at a distance needs at least two object: the source and the sink or the emitter and the absorber. Only with one charge even it has the acceleration, it still cannot make any radiation. However this result is not reflect at the Maxwell's theory. According to the theory of Maxwell, a single charge can produce the radiation without any help of the absorber. Hence, Maxwell theory is different with the absorber theory of Wheeler and Feynman, this author thought that Wheeler and Feynman is correct. According the absorber theory the source (emitter) sends the retarded wave. The sink (absorber) sends the advanced wave. In the electromagnetic field theory, W. J. Welch introduced the reciprocity theorem in 1960. V.H. Rumsey mentioned a method to transform the Lorentz reciprocity theorem to a new formula in 1963. In early of 1987 Shuang-ren Zhao (this author) introduced the mutual energy theorem in frequency domain. In the end of 1987 Adrianus T. de Hoop introduced the time-domain cross-correlation reciprocity theorem. All these theories can be seen as a same theorem in different domain: Fourier domain or in time domain. The reciprocity theorem of Welch, Rumsey and Hoop has been applied to find out the directivity diagram of receiving antenna from the corresponding transmitting antenna. The mutual energy theorem of Zhao, has been applied to define an inner product space of electromagnetic radiation fields, and hence, to applied to the sphere wave expansion and the plane wave expansion. All these theorems the transmitting antenna sends the retarded waves and the receiving antenna sends the advanced waves. The reciprocity theorems of Welch, Rumsey and Hoop talk about reciprocity theorem in which the two fields one can be real one can be virtual. The mutual energy theorem tell us the two fields the retarded wave sent out from the transmitting antenna and the advanced wave sent out from the receiving antenna are real and are physical waves with energy. After 30 years silence on this topic, finally, this author has introduced the mutual energy principle and self-energy principle which updated the Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory and Schrödinger's quantum mechanics. According to the theory of mutual energy principle, the energy of all particles are transferred through the mutual energy flows. The mutual energy flow are inner product of the retarded wave and the advanced wave. The retarded wave is the action the emitter gives to the absorber. The advanced wave is the reaction the absorber gives to the emitter. When the absorber received the retarded wave, it received a force from the emitter, that is the action from emitter to the absorber. When the emitter receive the advanced wave, it obtained the reaction from the absorber. This reaction is express as the recoil force of the particle to the emitter. Hence, action is retarded and the reaction is advanced. In this article the action is retarded and the reaction is advanced will be widen to the macroscopic object for example a stone or a piece of wood. Hence, even the waves in water, in air or wood all involve the advanced reaction. The author reviewed the Newton's third law, found that only when the reaction is advanced, the Newton's third law can be applied on arbitrary surface of the object. Hence the reaction is advanced must be correct.

A new methodology is introduced suggesting that an exact cosmological constant is theoretically and numerically derived and described as the squared ratio of Planck length and the particle horizon radius. Additionally, equations relating the sterile neutrino mass, Planck mass and mass of the universe are established. Furthermore, the mass of the universe can be derived as encoded information located on the cosmic horizon. Finally, a relationship of the Hubble radius and comoving radius is reviewed. This hypothesis is tested for convergence for an overall flat curvature using the Friedmann equations.

Locality, natural causality and deterministics are the fundamental principles of this treatise. A dense fluctuating point set with unique linking to physical movements facilitates the setting up of partial differential equations. So a clear definition of a turbulent fluid is established. Stochasticity in the sense of an ensemble theory is considered by distributions of motion quantities of an unlimited number of parallelly existent deterministic systems. First, particle transport equations of 1. Brownian motion as molecular self diffusion, 2. Stochastic transport by longitudinal fluctuations of a continuum, 3. Stochastic transport by turbulent continuum-fluctuations are developed. So Transition probabilities of moving quantities are evolved. The connection of deterministics and stochastics in the sense of an ensemble theory enables a complete deterministic turbulence equation set. The result is pure geometrodynamics of turbulence on one side and pure geometrodynamics of deformation on the other side. At the end, the incorrectness of the known equation set of laminar fluiddynamics for turbulence problems is discussed.

The theory consists of: I. a clear formulation of the turbulence problem by 1. definition of a fluid continuum, 2. definition of a turbulent fluid continuum, 3. derivation, that Navier-Stokes-like equations cannot describe a turbulent fluid continuum II. solution of the turbulence problem by establishing the link between the theory of deterministic fluctuating vector fields and stochastic vector fields in the sense of an ensemble theory as a counterpart: 1. derivation of a deterministic equation system of coupled vector vortex and curvature vector fields 2. derivation of a complete equation set for turbulent fluid movements The formulation of geometrodynamics of turbulence does not need an existent local thermodynamic equilibrium. In the case of fluid turbulence there is no requirement for establishing chaos theories.

This paper supports those who have proposed that a Michelson-Morley type experiment (MMX) be performed in outer space. It predicts results that will falsify the foundational postulates of Einstein's relativity and it explains why these these unexpected results are predicted. The prediction is that a Michelson-Morley type experiment performed in low Earth orbit will show an unambiguous non-null result with a fringe or frequency variation proportional to the square of its orbital velocity (7.6km/sec for a 500 km orbital altitude). If performed in interplanetary space, the result will be equivalent to the space-craft's orbital velocity around the Sun (∼ 30km/sec). These predictions are based on an alternative ether concept proposed by the late Prof. Petr Beck-mann in 1986 and independently developed by late Prof. Ching-Chuan Su in 2000. Prof. Su called it the local-ether model. It explains that the reason terrestrial MMX type experiments have reported null results is not because there is no "ether-wind" to detect; it is because the actual value of the "ether-wind" is due only to the velocity of Earth's rotation at the latitude of the laboratory (464cosθ meters/sec). This is too small for even the most sensitive recent versions of the MMX to unambiguously detect. Finally we will discuss accomplishing the experiment with private funding.

In this paper, however, we demonstrate with in-vivo and in-vitro experimental proof that, when a measurement was conducted predominantly in surface modes, a positive association between the glucose concentration and the blood permittivity was noticeably observed. During an in-vivo experiment, a cylindrical volume of meat tissues with a known blood glucose level was first formed with the help of a suction aspirator. The exterior wall of the suction aspirator was then wound with one turn of a gelatine-coated copper wire, which is referred thereafter as Goubau line sensor. The two terminals of the Goubau line sensor were then connected to ports 1 and 2 of a Vector Network Analyzer for measuring the S-parameters. The results of our in-vivo experiment show that, in the absence of any significant leaky wave radiation from the sensor, the measured blood glucose concentration positively correlates with the measured S21 parameters in a highly reproducible manner. Keywords: Blood Glucose, Surface Waves, Diabetes, Leaky Waves, Goubau line, Smoking cessation

The present work is based on a model where subatomic particles are represented as focal points of rays of Fundamental Particles (FPs) that move from infinite to infinite. FPs are emitted by the focal point and at the same time regenerate it. Interactions between subatomic particles are the product of the interactions of the angular momenta of the FPs. The interaction between two charged subatomic particles tend to zero for the distance between them tending to zero, allowing to place the zero of the potential energy at the distance zero. Atomic nuclei can thus be represented as swarms of electrons and positrons that neither attract nor repel each other. As atomic nuclei are composed of nucleons which are composed of quarks, the quarks can also be seen as swarms of electrons and positrons. This allows a completely new interpretation of the interactions between quarks and the corresponding energy states.

We experimentally prove that the famous single- and double-slit experiments are merely the scattered-light phase transition by slit edges rather than the conventional view of the transmitted-light effect by slits. The nature of the wave-particle duality of light quanta can be well understood with the help of the hypothesis of the quantized chiral photons having an intrinsic dual-energy cyclic exchange property. With the suggested theoretical framework, the experimental diffraction pattern of a single slit is analytically determined and numerically confirmed.

This article compares Maxwell's electrodynamics with the almost forgotten Weber electrodynamics as test theory by means of an easily reproducible and simple experiment. For this purpose, it is first theoretically inferred in two different ways that when charging a specially designed capacitor with a current source because of the displacement current a force should occur onto a permanent magnet between the plates, which is diametrically different in its direction in both theories. Subsequently, the experimental setup is described and, based on the results, it is determined that nature seems to follow Weber's law of force in this case. The result shows furthermore that Maxwell's magnetostatics can lead to false predictions under specific everyday conditions.

Classical physics is obsolete for more than a century if the question at stake is an accurate and complete description of Nature. Under that light if an alternative classical assumptions bundle may be capable of withstanding some of the major limitations of classical physics, it is reasonable to say that further discussion is required. This manuscript presents very specific and minimal assumptions in the domain of classical physics and extend them with bold ambitious conjectures. Although relation to nature is not shown, the main purpose of this manuscript is to inspire possibility of such relation.

Not only that the Relative-Velocity Completion of Newton Gravity Law has replaced the General Theory of Relativity (without pointing to any inconsistency or disagreement with experiment), but, herein, also removes the Special Theory of Relativity, via the Fresnel law on his hypothetical ether. We extend Fresnel’s law to vector form, by postulation, and using the gravitational index of refraction apply it to account for Michelson type experiments (including Miller’s). Reasons to resort to the Lorentz transformations, i.e., to the special theory of relativity, to account for the Michelson-Morley experiment do no more exist. Keywords: Fresnel law; Fresnel law vector generalized; Michelson-Morley experiment; Miller experiment.

The Lorentz magnetic force law has not been precisely verified. The experimental basis of it is in the early experiments done through the pioneers around the 1840s and 1850s; no new experiment has since been done when Hendrik Lorentz presented it in 1895 in its current form : F = q(v × B). The NIST data base of atomic mass of the various nuclides is actually the experimental data collected in a international distributed experiment to verify the Lorentz magnetic force law by using it to predict the atomic mass of nuclides. By comparing the predicted values with actual values measured using chemical methods, we could indirectly confirm the correctness of the law quantitatively to as much as 1 part in 10 7 .

A test of a nonlinear effect hitherto unknown in classical electrodynamics is proposed. For the possible nonlinearity to be observed, a high-intensity standing wave with circular polarization in a resonator is required. If the effect exists, an electric voltage should be induced between the mirros and an electric current can be measured. Motivation, quantitative expectations and the design of the experiment are discussed.

We firstly reviewed the symmetric top problem, then we have solved different possible motions numerically. We have given explanation about the rise of the symmetric top during nutation in terms of torque and angu- lar momentum. We have encountered with previously unnoticed proper- ties of motion and studied them. During the study, calculations gave some surprising results that the symmetric top can change its spin direction.

The nearly 300-year success of the Newtonian gravitation theory has always been based on the implicit assumption that the gravitational force is the same strong between standing and moving masses. In the 1990s, in Hungary, gravitational experiments were carried out in which gravitational effects were studied between moved masses. Surprisingly, by the outer force moved source masses generated more powerful gravitational force than Newtonian gravity. In addition, depending on the direction of moved masses, gravitational repulsion has been observed. Theoretical studies have shown that the newly discovered gravitational phenomenon appears when the interacted masses are moved artificially by inner and/or outer forces.

Calculations of resultant electrostatic force on a charged spherical or cylindrical capacitor with two sectors of different dielectrics, based on the classical formulas of electrostatic pressure, Kelvin polarization force density, and Maxwell stress tensor predict a reactionless force that violates Newton’s 3rd law. Measurements didn’t confirm the existence of such a reactionless thrust, thus there is an apparent inconsistency in the classical EM theory that leads to wrong results.

The Catt anomaly - more correctly the ‘Catt Question’ - was posed by Ivor Catt since 1982. It was initially posed to two Cambridge professors in electromagnetism who gave contradictory resolutions. None provided answers to explained why two authorities gave contradictory answers. Over the years, some attempts have been made but they did not seem to have been satisfactory. As recent as 2013, two Italian professors M. Pieraccini and S. Selleri attempted yet another resolution published in the journal Physics Education. From the critique by Stephen J. Crothers, this attempt too may be unsatisfactory. The author here gives an answer to the Catt question that is based only on classical electromagnetic theory. Through investigation on the Catt question, a concomitant observation have been made that electrical interactions and electric power transfer over conducting conductors all are based on instantaneous_action_at_a_distance’.

During internal discharge (electrical breakdown or field emission transmission), thin symmetric capacitors accelerate slightly towards the anode; an anomaly that does not appear obvious using standard physics. The effect can be predicted by core concepts of a model called quantised inertia (MiHsC) which assumes inertia of accelerated particles, such as electrons, is caused by Unruh radiation. This discrete Unruh radiation forms standing waves between the particle’s boundaries from the Rindler horizon to the confinement horizon. These waves are established based on special relativity in concert with quantum mechanics. Electrons accelerate toward the anode and are assumed to encounter an inhomogeneous Unruh radiation condition causing a force to modify their inertial mass. To conserve momentum, the overall mechanical system moves in the direction of the anode. This resulting force is assumed to be caused by an energy gradient in between the confinement and the Rindler zone and its equation is derived directly from the uncertainty principle. Discharging capacitors with various thicknesses are compared and show agreement between the experimental findings and a virtual particle oscillation associated with a standing wave energy gradient hypothesis. The preliminary results are encouraging.

A new semiclassical model of the electron with helical solenoid geometry is presented. This new model is an extension of both the Parson Ring Model and the Hestenes Zitterbewegung Model. This model interprets the Zitterbewegung as a real motion that generates the electron’s rotation (spin) and its magnetic moment. In this new model, the g-factor appears as a consequence of the electron’s geometry while the quantum of magnetic flux and the quantum Hall resistance are obtained as model parameters. The Helical Solenoid Electron Model necessarily implies that the electron has a toroidal moment, a feature that is not predicted by Quantum Mechanics. The predicted toroidal moment can be tested experimentally to validate or discard this proposed model.

A new preon model is presented as an extension of the semiclassical Helical Solenoid Electron Model that was previously proposed by the author. This helicon model assumes as postulates both the Atomic Principle and the equality between matter and electric charge. These postulates lead us to a radical reinterpretation of the concepts of antimatter and dark matter and form a new framework for future preon theories.

In recent decades, several methods significantly different from the classic method of the Cavendish torsion balance have been developed and used for measuring the gravitational constant G. Unfortunately, the new de-terminations of G have not reduced significantly its uncertainty. It seems that in recent times, the accuracy prob-lem for the gravitational constant has not been the focus. This paper presents a new type gravity experiment used a big and heavy physical pendulum, not for a newest gravitational constant measure, but for the study of special gravitational effects encountered accidentally. Surprisingly strong gravitational effects have been observed between moving masses. We have named the whole new group of gravitational phenomena by "dynamic gravity". Despite the simplicity of our gravity experiment, the observed extraordinary results could lead to an unexpected revolution in gravity science.

The origin of the limitations of our standard theoretical model is the assumption that the energy of a particle is concentrated at a small volume in space. The limitations are bridged by introducing artificial objects and constructions like particles wave, gluons, strong force, weak force, gravitons, dark matter, dark energy, etc. The proposed approach models subatomic particles such as electrons and positrons as focal points in space where continuously fundamental particles are emitted and absorbed, fundamental particles where the energy of the electron or positron is stored as rotations defining longitudinal and transversal angular momenta (fields). Interaction laws between angular momenta of fundamental particles are postulated in that way, that the basic laws of physics (Coulomb, Ampere, Lorentz, Maxwell, Gravitation, etc.) can be derived from the postulates. This methodology makes sure, that the approach is in accordance with the basic laws of physics, in other words, with well proven experimental data. Due to the dynamical description of the particles the proposed approach has not the limitations of the standard model and is not forced to introduce artificial concepts or constructions. All forces are the product of interactions between angular momenta of fundamental particles (electromagnetic interactions) described by QED. Interactions like QCD and Gauge/Gravity Duality are simply the product of the insufficiencies of the SM and not required.

Free fall experiment has been performed countless times for centuries. However, many facts were overlooked. A simple experiment since Galileo tells more than just gravity. Everyone can do it experiment will not catch much serious attention. Dishing up the same old stuff of few hounded years might seemed child's play to some. However, many fundamentals of the universe are revealed if looked closer. Significant facts can be overlooked, ignored, or misinterpreted when we rush forward. %Ambiguous and paradoxical interpretations of fundamentals could be roadblock left. Nevertheless, free fall experiments reveal: 1. Gravity is a force. 2. Free fall is an action powered by gravity. 3. Gravity contradicts attraction force. It acts exactly like contact force. 4. The infinite independence of space.

In this paper, the establishment of a systematic multi-barycenter mechanics is based on the multi-particle mechanics. The new theory perfects the basic theoretical system of classical mechanics, which discovers the law of mutual interaction between particle groups, reveals the limitations of Newton's third law, finds the principle of the internal relationship between gravity and tidal force, reasonably explains the origin and change laws for the rotation angular momentum of galaxies and stars and so on. By applying new theory, the N-body problem can be transformed into a special two-body problem and for which a simulation solution method is proposed, the motion law of each particle can be roughly obtained.

Besides energy, light presents us fastest and most details of the universe. It made us obsessively visual. It controls our understanding as well as misunderstanding of the universe. We, too, are creatures of motion. Speed is our obsession too. Light and it's speed might seem magical to us. However, what we see is only broadcasting of physical reality in the form of radiations delivered to us in high speed. We only see the visible part of radiations that stands out from the background and perceive it as information. It does not mean background contains less significant information than foreground revealed by light. Additionally, speed of light is no more important than other speed. Say, slow gentle motion can be more beneficial for building structures. To me, light and it's speed do not have any power to alter the fundamentals of the universe. To the contrary, it is the universe in charge of light and speed. No matter how fast the light, space does not allow it to go to next location instantly. The question is, can we be fooled by information in the form of light delivered at light speed, or by our obsession?

Why Earth momentum keeps same angle to the orbit, but moment of momentum changes its angle to the orbit (and to the momentum)? Both momentums behave like vectors (if no reflections) in an inertial coordinate system.

In this article, a new force law between current elements is proposed which holds the 3rd Newton's Law and concides with known experimental measurements avoiding the contradictions of Ampère and Grassman expressions. Likewise, an interaction expression between point charges is postulated which satisfies action reaction principle and is Galileo Invariant. This opens the way to a revision of the concept of magnetic field and a further study of the interaction between moving charged bodies. Keywords: Grassman, Ampère, Whittaker, Maxwell, Lorentz Force, Third Newton's Law, Action-Reaction Principle, Magnetic Field.

The phenomenon is so slow that its effect is undetectable in light emitted at distances as in our galaxy, but is significant in light coming from cosmological distances, hence the alias ”Cosmological Degeneration/Decay of Light”. An unprecedented case in physics is that the law governing the phenomenon results uniquely, through mathematical reasoning. As main consequences, it: solves Digges-Olbers’ paradox, thus making possible cosmology with infinite universe; explains Hubble’s redshift (or cosmological redshift), in agreement with Hubble’s constant’s inconstancy; explains the Penzias & Wilosn CMB; explains the unexplained non-uniformity in CMB; replaces the Big-Bang theory/model/scenario. Two new predictions are made.

According to the Planck’s theory of black body radiation, a black body is a collection of oscillators which are responsible for its radiation. There are no results available in the literature about the mass and vibrational ground state energy of the oscillator. In the present research, ground state energy and mass of the oscillator are calculated from Planck’s theory of black body radiation and de Broglie’s wave particle duality relation. It is observed that the mass of the oscillator is 1.6 × 10^{−39} kg and vibrational ground state energy is 3.587 × 10^{−23} J subject to the constraint that the minimum temperature for radiation of a black body is 2.598K.

<p>We hear the word radiation often. We see waves revealed by water, and air wave above hot surface. We feel the air (wind) and hear it's motion (sound), even see the supersonic shack wave of air.  How particle, wave, radiant energy, or EMR is different from perceivable world in our day to day life? Shouldn't there be fundamental principles that governing the action of matter and it's interaction with it's environment?</p> <p>Even a lone particle stands out from it's background. Any object broadcasts it's existence, from insignificant to strong, simple to complex. It will never stop regardless it is observable to us or not. Action of object casts force (energy) into the environment. It can be contact force that requires media to spread, or action-at-a-distance force that does not. Energy is passed onto next neighbors and spread out. The collected interactions of neighbors will be in the form of waves. It is the fundamental activity of action-reaction-interaction of an object and environment.</p> <p>Oscillating piano string with hummer, it makes sound and heat. Dust or water droplets on th string will be shook off. Oscillating it with electricity, it produces heat and light. Particles are radiated when oscillated in high energy. Certainly, the structure of the string will not survive long in such intense. Comparing to what the Sun is doing, do you see the similarity?  Isn't the Sun is oscillating at the intense of destruction?</p>

In this article, theoretical lower limit of mass of phonon and critical mass for matter-dark matter conversion is presented. Using Planck’s equation for black body radiation and de Broglie’s wave particle duality, we can get a relation between mass of phonon and frequency of emitted radiation which opens up several questions and possibilities. From this relation, with few assumptions, we may have a critical mass bellow which we have dark matter and above we get normal matter. With the help of this relation, maximum matter density and limit of string length may be reviewed. Calculated critical mass, considering the present value of Planck’s constant and Boltzmann constant, is 7.367 × 10^{−51} Kg. It is also observed that if phonon obeys de Broglie’s equation, generation of an electromagnetic radiation of frequency less than 56638721410Hz is not possible by thermal heating.

Using Planck’s postulates for black body radiation and wave particle duality relation of de Broglie we can get a relation between mass of a phonon and emission frequency of a body at different temperatures. Using boundary condition lower limit of mass of a phonon is calculated which is 7.36 × 10^{−51} kg.

<p>Exploits speed, time, and space to show why time dilation is impossible. Space and time are completely independent. Fundamental matter, energy, and space has existence and completely recyclable. However, time is only reference information. It doest not exist. Among all, <i><b>time can not be recycled</b></i>!</p> <p>Clocks can drift, yet, it is absolutely independent of time. Can we suppose the expansion or contraction of a yard stick meant the space has changed?</p>

<p>Basically, double-slit device is intrusive wave detector. Shooting particles to study their properties is intrusion. It would not be the same as performing autopsy on tabletop. The difficulty is not only studying a particle in motion, but keeping it still is not any easier, if possible. We are incapable of identifying it's individuality. Particle is a mass of it's own entity, and wave is the reaction of it's complement. Above all, <i><b>The rest of the universe is the absolute complement of an object</b></i>. Even a particle, it is impossible for it to be anywhere else at the same time, since anywhere else is it's absolute complement.</p>

Our perception is the information of physical events collected by sensors. Observation is a special case of hi-speed transportation of stream of information packages. The arrival order and interval and the quality would determine the perception of the observer. Additionally, not all arrived packages are perceived. We can catch more packages by improving the sensitivity and faster response of apparatus. However, most is lost. We can be fooled by what we see.

Las ecuaciones de Maxwell son los postulados del desarrollo presentado. De ellas se deducen como teoremas propiedades físicas fundamentales, como9 la distribución discreta de la energía, el valor teórico de la constante de estructura fina, el factor g del electrón, la unidad de masa elemental basada en las leyes de las partículas elementales (no de tipo convencional como la una) y varias propiedades más. El documento tiene estilo ameno y didáctico, para optimizar la comprensión.

We formulate and discuss, as much as we can, an inevitable mathematical and philosophical question: why do the General Theory of Relativity and the Relative-Velocity Dependence of Gravitational Interaction lead to the same well-known formula for the anomalous Perihelion Advance ?

As is well known – Newton's corpuscular model of light can explain the Law of Reflection and Snell's Law of Refraction. Sadly and regrettably – its predictions about the speed of light in different mediums runs contrary to experience. Because of this, Newton's theory of light was abandoned in favour of the wave theory. It [Newton's corpuscular model of light] predicts that the speed of light is larger in higher density mediums. This prediction was shown to be wrong by Foucault's 1850 landmark-ing experiment that brought down Newton's theory. The major assumption of Newton's corpuscular model of light is that the corpuscles of light have an attraction with the particle of the medium. When the converse is assumed, i.e., the corpuscles of light are assumed to not have an attraction-effect, but a repulsion-effect with the particles of the medium, one obtains the correct predictions of the speed of light in denser mediums. This assumption of Newton's corpuscles repelling with the particles of the medium – this, might explain why light has the maximum speed in any given medium.

Herein we propound the property, present its empirical law—a two Relative-Velocity Dependent (RVD) terms completion of Newton’s law of gravitation—and thereby solve some historic problems as: Solar cycle, apparent connection with Jupiter’s revolution, and why the two periods do not quite coincide; about 2.9–4.5×1019 joules/yr from earth’s rotation slowdown (Secular retardation) “missing” in tidal effects and attributed to some “unknown mechanism”; and the “unknown” nature (and magnitude) of the “driving/propelling force” in Tectonic plates drift; moreover, the RVD completion of Newton’s gravity law predicts that tectonic plates drift, globally, to the west, not randomly, causing earthquakes and volcano eruptions to occur most probable at equinoxes (around March and September). The well-known formula of Perihelion advance is also derived. Several experiments are proposed, some feasible now.

The intention of theoretical physics is to construct mathematical models so that experimental data can be predicted through calculation. If the prevailing model cannot explain new experimental data because of its imperfections, theorists add to the model fictitious entities and helpmates which are defined on the basis of the new experimental data, so that the new experimental data can now be calculated with the modified model. Remaining contradictions are camouflaged as good as possible to make the model consistent. If later on calculated data obtained indirectly from new experiments are consistent with the fictitious entities and helpmates, theorists conclude that this is the prove that the fictitious entities and helpmates really exist. The conclusion is a fallacy because it ignores that the model was previously made consistent, what means that all data obtained through experiments and calculations must be explained with the model, otherwise the model would not be consistent. Adding more and more fictitious entities and helpmates to an imperfect model makes it, with the time, more and more complex, untrustworthy and non-physical and finally a radically new model is required to overcome these problems.

The intention of theoretical physics is to construct mathematical models so that experimental data can be predicted through calculation. Models are based on approaches which define the nature of the models. The most common approaches used are of mythological, mathematical or physical nature. Examples of mythological approaches are gluons, gravitons, dark matter, dark energy. Examples of mathematical approaches are the MOND theory for gravitation, special relativity and general relativity, the theory of quantum mechanics with the gauge principle. Examples of approaches of physical nature are the String, Vortex and Focal Point theories, the Emission theories, the theory of gravitation as the result of the reintegration of migrated electrons and positrons to their nuclei, the theory of Galilean relativity with the gamma factor.

A system of equations of motion of point particles is considered within the framework of the classical dynamics (the three Newton’s laws). Equations of the system are similar to the equation by Wilhelm Eduard Weber from his theory of electrodynamics. However, while deriving equations of the system, the Coulomb law as the law for point particles which are motionless relatively one another (used by Weber for formulation of his equation) is regarded as a hypothesis unverified experimentally. An alternative hypothesis was proposed, presuming that the Coulomb law describes the interaction of the two electrically charged point particles within a determined range of their relative velocity magnitudes excluding a zero value – if the relative velocity magnitude is equal to zero, particles with like charges attract one another and those with unlike charges repulse. The results of mathematical analysis of the system of equations of motion of point particles with Coulomb forces modified in accordance with the alternative hypothesis and acting between them were used for modelling of the various physical phenomena and processes.

Newton's third law doesn't apply to electromagnetic systems. Nevertheless a relativistic dissertation, directly founded on Maxwell's equations and on relativistic dynamics, allows us to establish rigorously the law of total momentum for such systems. Some undervalued details about the role of internal forces in isolated systems are emphasized. The laws governing momentum in systems subject to electromagnetic forces are consistent in every situation. There are no reasons to postulate the existence of a hidden momentum to avoid non-existent paradoxes in the case of static fields.

The electric force from a uniformly moving point charge onto a resting point charge does not correspond exactly to the Coulomb force. This is a consequence of the Liénard–Wiechert potentials which are derived from Maxwell's equations. If the point charge is moving toward or away from a resting point charge, the electric force seems to be weakened compared to the Coulomb force. In contrary, the electric force appears to be strengthened when the point charge is passing the resting charge sideways. Together, both effects compensate each other so that the total charge is independent of the relative speed. This article proposes and discusses an experiment with which this claim can be verified. The experiment is of major importance, because besides the field formula of a point charge derived from Maxwell's equations a recently discovered, clearly easier structured alternative exist in which no longer a magnetic part occurs. Although both formulas differ significantly, it is impossible to design experiments with current loops of any form to decide between both alternatives, because theoretical considerations lead always to the same experimental predictions. The electrical part of both field formulas differs only by a Lorentz factor. This has the consequence that the total charge is in the alternative formula no longer independent from the relative speed between source and destination charge. Thus, the electric charge depends here on the reference frame and we get rest and relativistic charge. The experiment proposed in this article makes it possible to measure this effect so that a decision between both alternatives becomes possible.

Castillo demonstrates an important case of successful superposition of elliptically-polarised light by moving to spinor representations of electromagnetic plane waves: when the angle between the two unit spinors as represented on a Poincare sphere are (as a complex number) either 1, -1, i or -i. This paper demonstrates that there are additional conditions under which superposition is successful: phase-shifting of one of the waves by 90 degrees prior to superposition. Two and three superpositions are shown, and the candidate configurations for each are listed. The result is significant for Particle Physics at least, in that Castillo and Rubalcava-Garcia's prior work show a correspondance between Jones Calculus and SU(2), and gives a direct mapping between Jones and Pauli Matrices.

As a step toward understanding why the Earth's atmosphere "rotates" with the Earth, we use Geometric (Clifford) Algebra to investigate the trajectory of a single molecule that desorbs vertically upward from the Equator, then falls back to Earth without colliding with any other molecules. Sample calculations are presented for a molecule whose vertical velocity is equal to the surface velocity of the Earth at the Equator (463 m/s) and for one with a vertical velocity three times as high. The latter velocity is sufficient for the molecule to reach the Kármán Line (100,000 m). We find that both molecules fall to Earth behind the point from which they desorbed: by 0.25 degrees of latitude for the higher vertical velocity, but by only 0.001 degrees for the lower.

Considering the electron in the hydrogen atom as classical, and bound to the proton like a planet is bound to the sun, we are led to consider that it is in free fall and therefore that we can apply the Einstein's equivalence principle, thus the special relativity can be used to study its motion. Doing so, we are able to demonstrate that the electron's charge-to-mass ratio is the subsequent relativistic frequency that appears to the observer in the laboratory. We also show that a magnetic moment, very similar to the one of the quantum mechanics, must appear, although we stay in the fields of classical and relativistic physics.

Modeling the flow of non-Newtonian fluids in porous media is a challenging subject. Several approaches have been proposed to tackle this problem. These include continuum models, numerical methods, and pore-scale network modeling. The latter proved to be more successful and realistic than the rest. The reason is that it captures the essential features of the flow and porous media using modest computational resources and viable modeling strategies. In this article we present pore-scale network modeling techniques for simulating non-Newtonian flow in porous media. These techniques are partially validated by theoretical analysis and comparison to experimental data.

The study of flow of non-Newtonian fluids in porous media is very important and serves a wide variety of practical applications in processes such as enhanced oil recovery from underground reservoirs, filtration of polymer solutions and soil remediation through the removal of liquid pollutants. These fluids occur in diverse natural and synthetic forms and can be regarded as the rule rather than the exception. They show very complex strain and time dependent behavior and may have initial yield-stress. Their common feature is that they do not obey the simple Newtonian relation of proportionality between stress and rate of deformation. Non-Newtonian fluids are generally classified into three main categories: time-independent whose strain rate solely depends on the instantaneous stress, time-dependent whose strain rate is a function of both magnitude and duration of the applied stress and viscoelastic which shows partial elastic recovery on removal of the deforming stress and usually demonstrates both time and strain dependency. In this article, the key aspects of these fluids are reviewed with particular emphasis on single-phase flow through porous media. The four main approaches for describing the flow in porous media are examined and assessed. These are: continuum models, bundle of tubes models, numerical methods and pore-scale network modeling.

The `no-slip' is a fundamental assumption and generally-accepted boundary condition in rheology, tribology and fluid mechanics with strong experimental support. The violations of this condition, however, are widely recognized in many situations, especially in the flow of non-Newtonian fluids. Wall slip could lead to large errors and flow instabilities, such as sharkskin formation and spurt flow, and hence complicates the analysis of fluid systems and introduces serious practical difficulties. In this article, we discuss slip at fluid-solid interface in an attempt to highlight the main issues related to this diverse complex phenomenon and its implications.

In this paper we outline methods for calculating the pressure field inside flow conduits in the one-dimensional flow models where the pressure is dependent on the axial coordinate only. The investigation is general with regard to the tube mechanical properties (rigid or distensible), and with regard to the cross sectional variation along the tube length (constant or variable). The investigation is also general with respect to the fluid rheology as being Newtonian or non-Newtonian.

In this paper, we address the issue of threshold yield pressure of yield-stress materials in rigid networks of interconnected conduits and porous structures subject to a pressure gradient. We compare the results as obtained dynamically from solving the pressure field to those obtained statically from tracing the path of the minimum sum of threshold yield pressures of the individual conduits by using the threshold path algorithms. We refute criticisms directed recently to our previous findings that the pressure field solution generally produces a higher threshold yield pressure than the one obtained by the threshold path algorithms. Issues related to the solidification of yield stress materials in their transition from fluid phase to solid state have also been investigated and assessed as part of the investigation of the yield point.

The Newtonian mechanic and contemporary physics model the non-circular orbital systems on all scales as essentially conservative, closed-path zero-work systems and circumvent the obvious contradictions (rotor-free ‘field’ of ‘force’, in spite of its inverse proportionality to squared time-varying distance) by exploiting both energy and momentum conservation, along specific initial conditions, to be arriving at technically more or less satisfactory solutions, but leaving many of unexplained puzzles. In sharp difference to it, in recently developed thermo-gravitational oscillator approach movement of a body in planetary orbital systems is modeled in such a way that it results as consequence of two counteracting mechanisms represented by respective central forces, that is gravitational and anti-gravitational accelerations, in that the actual orbital trajectory comes out through direct application of the Least Action Principle taken as minimization of work (to be) done or, equivalently, a closed-path integral of increments (or time-rate of change) of kinetic energy. Based on the insights gained, a critique of the conventional methodology and practices reveals shortcomings that can be the cause of the numerous difficulties the modern physics has been facing: anomalies (as gravitational and Pioneer 10/11), three or more bodies problem, postulations in modern cosmology of dark matter and dark energy, the quite problematic foundation of quantum mechanics, etc. Furthermore, for their overcoming, indispensability of the Aether as an energy-substrate for all physical phenomena is gaining a very strong support, and based on recent developments in Aetherodynamics the Descartes' Vortex Physics may become largely reaffirmed in the near future.

A co-field to Newton's gravitational field is derived and its properties defined. It is applied to explain "Spacecraft-Earth Flyby Anomalies" discovered during deep space missions launched between 1990 and 2006. The Flyby anomaly has been considered a major unresolved problem in astrophysics. Keywords: Gravitational Co-Field, Spacecraft-Earth Flyby Anomalies, Space Physics, Classical Physics

In this paper, we propose and test an intuitive assumption that the pressure field in single conduits and networks of interconnected conduits adjusts itself to minimize the total energy consumption required for transporting a specific quantity of fluid. We test this assumption by using linear flow models of Newtonian fluids transported through rigid tubes and networks in conjunction with a simulated annealing (SA) protocol to minimize the total energy cost. All the results confirm our hypothesis as the SA algorithm produces very close results to those obtained from the traditional deterministic methods of identifying the flow fields by solving a set of simultaneous equations based on the conservation principles. The same results apply to electric ohmic conductors and networks of interconnected ohmic conductors. Computational experiments conducted in this regard confirm this extension. Further studies are required to test the energy minimization hypothesis for the non-linear flow systems.

The present paper is an attempt to demonstrate how the energy minimization principle may be considered as a governing rule for the physical equilibrium that determines the flow fields in tubes and networks. We previously investigated this issue using a numerical stochastic method, specifically simulated annealing, where we demonstrated the problem by some illuminating examples and concluded that energy minimization principle can be a valid hypothesis. The investigation in this paper is more general as it is based to a certain extent on an analytical approach.

Several deterministic and stochastic multi-variable global optimization algorithms (Conjugate Gradient, Nelder-Mead, Quasi-Newton, and Global) are investigated in conjunction with energy minimization principle to resolve the pressure and volumetric flow rate fields in single ducts and networks of interconnected ducts. The algorithms are tested with seven types of fluid: Newtonian, power law, Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley, Ellis, Ree-Eyring and Casson. The results obtained from all those algorithms for all these types of fluid agree very well with the analytically derived solutions as obtained from the traditional methods which are based on the conservation principles and fluid constitutive relations. The results confirm and generalize the findings of our previous investigations that the energy minimization principle is at the heart of the flow dynamics systems. The investigation also enriches the methods of Computational Fluid Dynamics for solving the flow fields in tubes and networks for various types of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.

The flow of Ree-Eyring and Casson non-Newtonian fluids is investigated using a variational principle to optimize the total stress. The variationally-obtained solutions are compared to the analytical solutions derived from the Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation and the results are found to be identical within acceptable numerical errors and modeling approximations.

This document attempted to obtain analytical solutions for the "Falling Slinky" in three ways. The first two, which used the wave equation, failed for different reasons. The first attempt used Fourier series, which could not satisfy the initial and boundary conditions. The second attempt used Laplace transforms; this method did give a solution, which correctly predicted the acceleration of the center of mass, but which predicted that the upper part of the Slinky should "fall through" the lower part, which is impossible. This false prediction is not a defect of the use of Laplace transforms, but an artifact of the use of the wave equation to treat the falling Slinky, which is a shock-wave phenomenon. The third attempt at a solution used the impulse-momentum theorem, obtaining a result whose predictions are internally consistent, as well as agreeing with empirical results. However, we must point out that the model used here treats only the Slinky's longitudinal behavior, ignoring its torsional behavior.

Free fall through the Earth, considered as a sphere of radially symmetric mass density, along the axis of rotation, is calculated using a general differential equation in newtonian gravity theory. The passage time is calculated and, further, the shape of the tunnel required if the fall is started at an arbitrary point other than a pole, so that the rotation of the Earth comes into play, is determined. Also a general relativistic case with constant density along the axis is considered. -- In this general form the article may also be of some pedagogical value.

A natural physical approach to the analysis of the structure of closed gravitating systems has been formulated in the scope of classical mechanics. The approach relies on the interrelation between densities of nested spheres inscribed in the circular orbits of the system bodies. An empirical law has been defined for the evolution of closed gravitating systems differing in mass, time scale and distance from the ground-based Observer. The gravitating systems undergo modifications and evolve from their initial state, namely, a gas-and-dust formation of almost constant density over the entire volume, to a certain terminal phase of the process when the system structure becomes similar to the planetary system (like the Solar system) where almost all the gravitating mass is concentrated in the vicinity of the system center of gravity. Using the proposed method of nested spheres, it is possible to reveal for the gravitating system the character of radial distribution of matter density in the system symmetry plane, quantitatively evaluate the density of medium containing the gravitating system under consideration, and assess the current phase of the system evolution. The research results have led us to a conclusion that introduction into the scientific practice of such an entity as "dark matter" has no physical background since it is based on a wrong interpretation of an "unordinary" distribution of star orbital velocities in galaxies.

Scalar wave was found and used at first by Nikola Tesla in his wireless energy transmission experiment. Prof.K.Meyl extended the Maxwell equation and found the lost scalar wave part. The scalar wave theory proposed by Prof.K.Meyl indicates that the torsion field is the nature of scalar wave. This work attempts to detect the torsion field nature of scalar wave generated by the dual Tesla coil system, using the torsion balance consisting of a wooden frame. The result is positive and two kinds of torsion field including left-handed and right-handed are detected in dual Tesla coil system.

The motion of the mathematical extra-terrestrial pendulum is considered in the spherical gravitational field. The potential energy of the pendulum bob is approximated by the linear term mgh and additional quadratical term in h, where h is height of the pendulum bob over the reference point. The nonlinear equation of motion of pendulum is solved by the Landau- Migdal method to obtain the frequency of motion and the swing amplitude. While the Foucault pendulum bob moves over the sand surface, our pendulum bob moves in ionosphere. It is not excluded that the pendulum project will be the integral part of the NASA cosmical physics.

De-diffraction (DD), a new procedure to totally cancel diffraction effects from wave-fields is presented, whereby the full field from an aperture is utilized and a truncated geometrical field is obtained, allowing infinitely sharp focusing and non-diverging beams. This is done by reversing a diffracted wave-fields’ direction. The method is derived from the wave equation and demonstrated in the case of Kirchhoff’s integral. An elementary bow-wavelet is described and the DD process is related to quantum and relativity theories.

В настоящей статье представлена концепция автора по некоторым вопросам и проблемам современного физического знания о Природе и Вселенной. В статье определена уникальная, универсальная космологическая константа Вселенной. На базе этой константы решена проблема построения естественной аксиоматической теории планковских констант. В этой статье представлены взгляды автора 2011-2012 годов.

In the present article the unique, universal, cosmological constant of the Universe is determined. On the basis of this constant the problem of build-up of unique, natural, universal, axiomatic system of the Planck's constants is solved. According to the concept of the author the Universe space is considered as a three-dimensional, discrete, Euclidean spatial lattice with knots and a motion of the material carriers (elementary particles or the particles transmitting interaction) is considered as a transferring between the neighbouring knots of a lattice on the loopback trajectories. The author in article presents the solution of a question on sense of a ne-structure constant. The solution of a problem of a dark matter and dark energy is presented.

Maxwell's Classical Electrodynamics (MCED) shows several related inconsistencies, as the consequence of a single false premise. The Lorentz force law of MCED violates Newton's Third Law of Motion (N3LM) in case of General Magnetostatics (GMS) current distributions, that are not necessarily divergence free. A consistent GMS theory is defined by means of Whittaker's force law, which requires a scalar magnetic force field, $B_L$. The field $B_L$ mediates a longitudinal Ampère force, similar to the vector magnetic field, $\B_T$, that mediates a \textit{transverse} Ampère force. The sum of transverse- and longitudinal Ampère forces obeys N3LM for stationary currents in general. The scalar field, $B_\Phi$, is also a physical, as a consequence of charge continuity. MCED does not treat the induction of the electric field, $\E_L$, by a time varying $B_L$ field, so MCED does not cover the reason for adding $E_L$ to the superimposed electric field, $E$. The exclusion of $E_L$ from $E$ simplifies MCED to Classical Electrodynamics (CED). The MCED Jefimenko fields show a far field contradiction, that is not shown by the CED fields. CED is based on the Lorentz force and therefore violates N3LM as well. Hence, we define a General Classical Electrodynamics (GCED) as a generalization of GMS and CED. GCED describes three types of far field waves: the longitudinal $\Phi$-wave, the longitudinal electromagnetic (LEM) wave and the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, with vacuum phase velocities respectively $a$, $b$ and $c$. GCED power- and force theorems are derived. The general force theorem obeys N3LM only if the three phase velocities satisfy the Coulomb premise: a >> c and b=c. GCED with Coulomb premise is far field consistent, and resolves the classical $\frac{4}{3}$ energy-momentum problem of a moving charged sphere. GCED with the Lorentz premise (a=c and b=c) reduces to the inconsistent MCED. Many experimental results verify GCED with Coulomb premise, and falsify MCED. GCED can replace MCED as a new foundation of modern physics (relativity theory and wave mechanics). It might be the inspiration for new scientific experiments and electrical engineering, such as new wave-electronic effects based on $\Phi$-waves and LEM waves, and the conversion of natural $\Phi$-waves and LEM wave energy into useful electricity, in the footsteps of Nikola Tesla and Thomas Henry Moray.

The results of the Sagnac experiment analyzed with the Standard Model (SM) are easily explained with non relativistic equations assuming that light moves with light speed independent of its source, but the results are not compatible with Special Relativity. The Sagnac results analyzed with the ``Emission & Regeneration'' UFT present no incompatibilities within the theory which postulates that light is emitted with light speed relative to the emitting source. Electromagnetic waves that arrive with any speed to mirrors, optical lenses and electric antenas are absorbed by the level electrons and subsequently emitted with light speed "c" relative to their nuclei, explaining why light speed "c" is always measured in all inertial frames. Relativity derived in the frame of the ``E & R'' UFT has absolute time and absolute space resulting in a theory without paradoxes..

The friction sound is considered to be involved in the von Karman vortex street. The non-relativistic and relativistic Strouhal numbers are derived from von Karman's vortex street. The relativistic result follows from the relativistic addition formula for velocities. The friction tones generated by von Karman's vortex street form the fith sound in the fliquid helium II. This sound was still not experimentally observed in superfuid helium II and it means that this sound is here predicted as the crucial step in the low temperature helium II physics of the low temperature laboratories. The electron transport in graphene is supposed to be described by the hydrodynamic form of the viscous liquid allowing the existence of the vortex street. It is not excluded that the discovering of the vortex street in graphene can form one of the crucial discoveries in the graphene physics. By analogy with helium II, we propose that photon is a quantum vortex, or, the Onsager vortexon.

The non-relativistic and relativistic Strouhal number is derived from the so called von Karman's vortex street. The relativistic derivation of this formula follows from the addition formula for velocities. The Strouhal friction tones are generated also during the motion of cosmic rays in relic photon sea, during the motion of bolids in atmosphere, during the Saturn rings motion in the relic black-body sea, during the motion of bodies in superfluid helium and so on.

We analyze the crush-down collapse of One World Trade Center (1~WTC, North Tower) in the framework of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, 2005) collapse hypothesis. The main feature of crush-down is that a moving part of the building - the top section - falls onto the stationary base, and absorbs the mass in the way. We extend the Ba\v{z}ant-Verdure-Seffen (BVS) model of crush-down~(\bv, 2002; Seffen, 2008), where we split the crushing front in two, one at the core and to other at the perimeter of the building. We fit the BVS and the split-front crush-down model to recently published roofline motion data (MacQueen and Szamboti, 2009), to find detailed variation of crushing force $\FC(Z)$ in the storeys 97 and 96, and the average crushing force $\mean{F^C}$ in the remainder of the impact zone (storeys 95 to 93) and in the base below for the remainder of roofline data (storeys 92 through 87). We show how within the NIST hypothesis and the BVS model $\ec{}$, defined as $\ec{} = \mean{F^C} / \FC(0)$, requires a correction factor of 1/6 to match the data. We construct a Controlled Demolition (CD) hypothesis which avoids this and other correction factors through two assumptions: $(i)$ the top section is twice as massive as what it appears to be, where its core stretches initially down to the 75-th storey; and $(ii)$, the collapse starts with the wave of massive destruction which annihilates the core below the 75-th storey and separates the top section from the base below the impact zone, following which the top section falls to the ground opposed mostly by the perimeter columns, which strength is approximately a third of the total strength. Within the CD hypothesis we achieve excellent agreement between Ba\v{z}ant-Verdure model of crushing force and the data.

\begin{abstract} It is argued that the speed of light $c$ and Planck's quantum $h$ are anomalies that undermine the basis of Newtonian physics, the existence of space and time. In a Kuhnian sense, $c$ and $h$ were unpredicted parameters, extraneous to Newton's physics. Relativity and quantum mechanics, despite their obvious success, can be seen modifications of Newtonian physics that hided the possibility that space and time were inappropriate concepts for describing reality. Rather than being fundamental, space and time might just be the most suitable frames for human perception. $c$ indicates a failure of the Newtonian space-time paradigm on large scale, while $h$ indicates a failure on small scale. At the same time, $c$ and $h$ are related to light and matter, two phenomenologies Newtonian physics cannot explain as such. There is no a priori reason why reality should present itself in this particular fashion, and there is no reason for the existence of 3+1 dimensions either. It is further suggested that reality might be truly three-dimensional, the fourth dimension being an illusion created by navigating through a sequence of tangent spaces of a three-dimensional manifold. All physical laws would then be encdoded in a connection on this manifold. The most simple three-dimensional manifold, endowed with unique properties, is $S^3$. From the point of view of natural philosophy, there must be a reason for the existence of constants of nature. If $S^3$ is indeed a description of reality, then it should provide a reason for the existence of $c$ and $h$. It is suggested that $c$ is related to the fact that $S^3$ has a tangent space and $h$ is related to the noncommutativity of SU(2)$, the group acting on $S^3$.

The International Year of Light 2015 is a welcome opportunity to look back to observations and famous experiments that lead to revolutionary theories in physics around the phenomenon of light. The observed aberration of starlight and later the experiment of Michelson and Morley were in contradiction to the electrodynamic theory of light until the special relativity theory solved the conflict by proposing time and space effects in moving systems. Today, laser and CCD technlogies enable much more precise measurements than in former times. The most accurate test of electrodynamics is achievable by aberration measurement of a laser beam because it offers an effect in the first order of v/c. The results of the experiment verify the findings of Michelson and Morley but are, surprisingly, in contradiction to electrodynamics and to special relativity theory. Our picture of the light's properties is still imperfect.

The paper discusses a monopole theory based on the assumption that electromagnetic fields of charges are identical to electromagnetic fields of monopoles. It proves that this theory violates energy conservation. This result is consistent with the absence of a regular Lagrangian density for this theory as well as with the systematic failure of experiments aiming to detect such monopoles. By contrast, a monopole theory that is derived from a regular Lagrangian density is free of these problems.

The force law of Maxwell's classical electrodynamics does not agree with Newton's third law of motion (N3LM), in case of open circuit magnetostatics. Initially, a generalized magnetostatics theory is presented that includes two additional physical fields $B_\Phi$ and $B_l$, defined by scalar functions. The scalar magnetic field $B_l$ mediates a longitudinal Ampère force that balances the transverse Ampère force (aka the magnetic field force), such that the sum of the two forces agrees with N3LM for all stationary current distributions. Secondary field induction laws are derived; a secondary curl free electric field $\E_l$ is induced by a time varying scalar magnetic field $B_l$, which isn't described by Maxwell's electrodynamics. The Helmholtz' decomposition is applied to exclude $\E_l$ from the total electric field $\E$, resulting into a more simple Maxwell theory. Decoupled inhomogeneous potential equations and its solutions follow directly from this theory, without having to apply a gauge condition. Field expressions are derived from the potential functions that are simpler and far field consistent with respect to the Jefimenko fields. However, our simple version of Maxwell's theory does not satisfy N3LM. Therefore we combine the generalized magnetostatics with the simple version of Maxwell's electrodynamics, via the generalization of Maxwell's speculative displacement current. The resulting electrodynamics describes three types of vacuum waves: the $\Phi$ wave, the longitudinal electromagnetic (LEM) wave and the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, with phase velocities respectively a, b and c. Power- and force theorems are derived, and the force law agrees with Newton's third law only if the phase velocities satisfy the following condition: a>>b and b=c. The retarded potential functions can be found without gauge conditions, and four retarded field expressions are derived that have three near field terms and six far field terms. All six far field terms are explained as the mutual induction of two free fields. Our theory supports Rutherford's solution of the 4/3 problem of electromagnetic mass, which requires an extra longitudinal electromagnetic momentum. Our generalized classical electrodynamics might spawn new physics experiments and electrical engineering, such as new photoelectric effects based on $\Phi$- or LEM radiation, and the conversion of natural $\Phi$- or LEM radiation into useful electricity, in the footsteps of Nikola Tesla and T.Henry Moray.

As described in the literature the velocity of a Keplerian orbiter on a fixed orbit is always the sum of a uniform rotation velocity and a uniform translation velocity, both coplanar. This property is stated here as a theorem and demonstrated as true. The consequences are investigated among which the Newton's gravitational acceleration appears as its derivative with respect to time, the classical mechanical energy is deduced, the Galileo's equivalence principle is respected. However the Newton's factor $G M$ appears as a kinematics factor, the angular momentum multiplied by the rotation velocity, and this enables to consider a kinematics reason for the rotation of the galaxies, with no need for dark matter. Furthermore the kinematics demonstrate that the gravitational acceleration causes the rotation, but not the attraction, while the mechanical acceleration can only cause a translation. These two accelerations being thus of different natures, the Einstein's equivalence principle can not be correct.

Maxwell's equations seem overdetermined, which have six unknowns and eight equations. It is generally believed that Maxwell's divergence equations are redundant, and both equations are thought as initial conditions of curl ones. Because of this explanation, two divergence equations usually are not solved in computational electromagnetics. A circular logical fallacy of this explanation is found, and two divergence equations, which are not redundant, but fundamental, cannot be ignored in computational electromagnetics.

The Maxwell electromagnetic and the Lorentz type force equations are derived in the framework of the R. Feynman proper time paradigm and the related vacuum field theory approach. The electron inertia problem is analyzed within the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms and the related pressure-energy compensation principle. The modified Abraham- Lorentz damping radiation force is derived, the electromagnetic elctron mass origin is argued.

This paper presents an alternative classical mechanics which is invariant under transformations between reference frames and which can be applied in any reference frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces. Additionally, a new principle of conservation of energy is also presented.

This paper presents an alternative classical mechanics which establishes the existence of a new universal force of interaction (called kinetic force) and which can be applied in any reference frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.

Still now there are no theoretical background for explanation of physical phenomena of `spooky action at a distance' as a quantum superposition of quantum particles. Several experiments shows that speed of this phenomena is at least four orders of magnitude of light speed in vacuum. The classical electromagnetic field theory is based on similarity to the classic dynamic of solid continuum media. The today's experimental data of spin of photon is not reflected reasonable manner in Maxwell's equations of EM. So, new proposed micropolar extensions of electromagnetic field equations cloud explain observed rotational speed of electromagnetic field, which experimentally exceed speed of light at least in four order of magnitude.

This paper presents an alternative classical mechanics which is invariant under transformations between reference frames and which can be applied in any reference frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.

In this paper, a geometrical interpretation of light diffraction is given using an infinity of fluctuating geodesics for the small scale (the quantum scale) that represent paths of least time in an homogeneous space. Without using the wave theory, we provide a geometrical explanation of the deviation of light's overall direction from rectilinear when light encounters edges, apertures and screens.

In this paper we apply our version of biquaternion math-phys to electrodynamics, especially to moving electromagnetic dipole moments. After a terminological introduction and applying the developed math-phys to the Maxwell environment, we propose to fuse the Larmor angular velocity with the Lorentz Force Law, producing the biquaternion Lorentz-Larmor Law. This might be a more economic way to deal with cyclotron and tokamak related physics, where the Lorentz Force Law and the Larmor angular velocity actively coexist. Then we propose a biquaternion formulation for the energy-torque-hidden-momentum product related to a moving electromagnetic dipole moment. This expression is then used to get a relativistically invariant force equation on moving electromagnetic dipole moments. This equation is then used to get at the force on a hidden electromagnetic dipole moment and for a derivation of the Ahanorov-Casher force on a magnetic dipole moving in an external electric field. As a conclusion we briefly relate our findings to Mansuripurs recent critique of the Lorentz Force Law and the electrodynamic expressions for the energy-momentum tensor.

Extension of Maxwell's equations is proposed to realize charge creation and annihilation. The proposed equations includes Nakanishi-Lautrup (NL) field, which was introduced to construct Lorentz covariant electromagnetic field model for quantum electrodynamics (QED). The necessity of the extension of Maxwell's equations is shown by the comparison of current values given by Maxwell's and the proposed equations in the simple structure consisting of a silicon sphere surrounded by SiO2. Maxwell's equations give unreasonable currents in SiO2, although the proposed equations give reasonable result. The electromagnetic field energy density is increased by existence of NL field.

A basic overview of the photon four-frequency is given, demonstrating its use in the explanation of the aberration of starlight and the Doppler shift, at a mathematical level suitable for undergraduate students in the physical sciences.

The paper presents the novel results obtained by more comprehensively analyzing well-known and clearly visible physical processes associated with gravitational interaction in the system of material bodies in the medium of non-zero density. The work is based on the statement that the "buoyancy" (Archimedes) force acting on the material body located in a medium of non-zero density is of the gravitational nature. Due to this approach, we managed, staying in the framework of classical physics and mechanics definitions, to introduce the concept of the body's gravitating mass as a mass determining the gravitational interaction intensity and also to establish an analytical relation between the gravitating and inertial masses of the material body. Combining the direct and indirect (Archimedes force) gravitational effect on the material body in the medium, we succeeded in distinguishing from the total gravitational field of this system a structure with a dipole-like field line distribution. This fact allows us to assert that, along with the gravitational attraction, there exists also gravitational repulsion of material bodies, and this fact does not contradict the meanings of existing basic definitions and concepts of classical physics and mechanics.

In this paper, we reproduce the interference pattern using only space-time geodesics. We prove that fringes and bands can be reproduced by using fluctuating geodesics, which suggests that the interference pattern shown to occur with electrons, atoms, molecules and other elementary particles might be a natural manifestation of the space-time geodesics for the small scale world.

The methodology of today's theoretical physics consists in introducing first all known forces by separate definitions independent of their origin, arriving then to quantum mechanics after postulating the particle's wave, and is then followed by attempts to infer interactions of particles and fields postulating the invariance of the wave equation under gauge transformations, allowing the addition of minimal substitutions. The origin of the limitations of our standard theoretical model is the assumption that the energy of a particle is concentrated at a small volume in space. The limitations are bridged by introducing artificial objects and constructions like gluons, W and Z bosons, gravitons, dark matter, dark energy, etc. The proposed approach models subatomic particles such as electrons and positrons as focal points in space where continuously fundamental particles are emitted and absorbed, fundamental particles where the energy of the electron or positron is stored as rotations defining longitudinal and transversal angular momenta (fields). Interaction laws between angular momenta of fundamental particles are postulated in that way, that the basic laws of physics (Coulomb, Ampere, Lorentz, Maxwell, Gravitation, etc.) can be derived from the postulates. This methodology makes sure, that the approach is in accordance with the basic laws of physics, in other words, with well proven experimental data. Due to the dynamical description of the particles the proposed approach has not the limitations of the standard model and is not forced to introduce artificial objects or constructions. All forces are the product of electronagnetic interactions described by QED.

Special Relativity derived by Einstein presents time and space distorsions and paradoxes. This paper presents an approach where the Lorenz transformations are build on equations with speed variables instead of space and time variables as done by Einstein. The result are transformation rules between inertial frames that are free of time dilation and length contraction for all relativistiv speeds. Particles move according to Galilei relativity and the transformed speeds (virtual speeds) describe the non linearity of the physical magnitudes relative to the Galilei speeds. All the transformation equations already existent for the electric and magnetic fields, deduced on the base of the invariance of the Maxwell wave equations are still valid. The present work shows the importance of including the characteristics of the measuring equipment in the chain of physical interactions to avoid unnatural conclusions like time dilation and lengthcontraction.

In this paper, we shall study an electromechanical system, which is capable of showing chaos. Our aim would be to identify deterministic chaos, which effectively means finding out the conditions in which the system would show aperiodicity. We shall study a coupled system, consisting of a Bullard Dynamo driving a Faraday Disk. First, we shall give a brief description of the system (by stating the equations describing the system), then we shall identify the fixed points for the system, and identify different dynamical regimes. Our objective here is to elaborate the methods by which a dynamical system is characterized.

We determine the velocity of the photon outflow from the blackbody in the de Laval nozzle. Derivation is based on the Saint-Venant-Wantzel equation for the thermodynamic of the blackbody photon gas and on the Einstein relation between energy and mass. The application of the derived results for photon rockets is not excluded.

This paper presents the mechanism of gravitation based on an approach where the energies of electrons and positrons are stored in fundamental particles (FPs) that move radially and continuously through a focal point in space, point where classically the energies of subatomic particles are thought to be concentrated. FPs store the energy in longitudinal and transversal rotations which define corresponding angular momenta. Forces between subatomic particles are the product of the interactions of their FPs. The laws of interactions between fundamental particles are postulated in that way, that the linear momenta for all the basic laws of physics can subsequently be derived from them, linear momenta that are generated out of opposed pairs of angular momenta of fundamental particles. The flattening of Galaxies' Rotation Curve is derived without the need of the definition of Dark Matter, and the repulsion between galaxies is shown without the need of Dark Energy. The mechanism of the dragging between neutral moving masses is explained (Thirring-Lense-effect) and how gravitation affects the precision of atomic clocks is presented (Hafele-Keating experiment). Finally, the compatibility of the presented approach for gravitation with quantum mechanics is shown, what is not the case with general relativity.

There seems to be an identity that relates certain universal constants: k = sqrt(4πeG) = 8.617(22023) × 10−11 k = Boltzmann Constant; e = Electric Permittivity; G = Gravitational Constant. There is no real physics that establishes it; it is only discovered accidentally when an attempt is made to combine the two inverse square laws of electrostatic and gravity into one complex inverse square law with complex-valued fundamental particles. The identity may be a clue that relates the forces of gravity, electromagnetism and the nuclear forces.

English: (Traslation) It tries to show that what we call here as Energy is usually a change of over time, or also a Uniformly Accelerated Motion. Both undermine the space-time converted into energy. This phenomenon, besides being reversible, it can be done very efficiently by an electronic device like a vacuum tube. Discussed here some possible dimensions such device, but without electron optics, and the influence of electromagnetic radiation losses and maximum deviation for an electron eccentric. In one of the appendices also shows how you can extend the phenomenon of time dilation (measured redshift in the Sun [1]) for electrically charged bodies. And whose values match with calculations based on the difference over time. Spanish: (Original) Se trata de mostrar aquí que lo que denominamos habitualmente como Energía es un cambio de transcurso de tiempo, o, también, un Movimiento Uniformemente Acelerado. Ambos merman el espacio-tiempo para convertirse en energía. Este fenómeno, aparte de ser reversible, es posible hacerlo muy eficientemente mediante un dispositivo electrónico similar a un tubo de vacío. Se analizan aquí algunas posibles dimensiones de tal dispositivo, aunque sin óptica electrónica, y la influencia de pérdidas por radiación electromagnética así como la desviación máxima para un electrón excéntrico. En uno de los Apéndices se muestra además como es posible extender el fenómeno de dilatación temporal (corrimiento al rojo medido en el Sol [1]) para cuerpos con carga eléctrica. Y cuyos valores coinciden con los cálculos basados en la diferencia del transcurso del tiempo.

The paper presents a natural definition of gravitational mass without invoking new entities. The approach suggested expands the application field of the law of gravitational interaction between material objects located in a gravitating medium. The paper demonstrates the existence of a functional relationship between the inertial and gravitational masses, which has brought us to a conclusion that the condition under which the inertial and gravitational masses would be equal is rather speculative and not practically realizable. We give here real examples of existence of the negative gravitational mass, as well as natural cases of the gravitational repulsion. Some cases of gravitational dipole as a physical object existing in our natural environment are also presented.

Abstract: English:This article shows how electrical force can be powered by asymmetric systems, as with gravitational force. Attempts to explain also summarily where emerges that energy. Spanish:En este artículo se muestra como de la fuerza eléctrica se puede obtener energía mediante sistemas asimétricos, al igual que con fuerza gravitatoria. Se intenta explicar además, someramente de donde surge esa energía.

Prevailing and conventional wisdom holds that intermediate gauge Bosons for long range interactions such as the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions must be massless as is assumed to be the case for the photon which mediates the electromagnetic interaction. We have argued in Nyambuya (2013) that it should in-principle be possible to have massive photons. The problem of whether or not these photons will lead to short or long range interactions has not been answered. Naturally, because these photons are massive, one would without much pondering and excogitation on the matter assume that these photons can only take part in short range interactions. Contrary to this and to conventional wisdom; via a subtlety, we show within the confines of Proca Electrodynamics, that massive photons should be able to take part in long range interactions without any problem. While leaving the speed of light as an invariant fundamental constant, the resulting theory leads to a time variation in the Fundamental Constants of Nature, namely the permittivity and permeability of free space. In-turn, this leads to a plausible explanation as to why the fine structure constant strongly appears to be varying over cosmological times.

According to Newton's third law, in a collision between two isolated particles `action equals reaction'. However, in classical electrodynamics, this law is violated. In general, in a collision between two isolated charged particles, the momentum of the particles is not conserved. Typically, it is necessary to combine field momentum with particle momentum in order to `balance the scales'. A paradox arises from the fact that, generally, particle momentum is conserved in the center of mass frame, but not in the lab frame. Here, we offer a resolution to this paradox in which the third law remains valid for collisions between charged particles, in all situations and in all frames, without the need to invoke the momentum of the field. This article is a revision of my previous article by the same title.

In this paper, the generalized dierential wave equation for free electromagnetic eld is transformed and formulated by means of matrixes. Then Maxwell wave equation and the second form of wave equation are deduced by matrix transformation. The solutions of the wave equations are discussed . Finally, two dierential equations of vibration are established and their solutions are discussed .

Prevailing and conventional wisdom as drawn from both Professor Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity and our palatable experience, holds that photons are massless particles and that, every particle that travels at the speed of light must -- accordingly, be massless. Amongst other important but now resolved problems in physics, this assumption led to the Neutrino Mass Problem -- namely, ``Do neutrinos have mass?'' Neutrinos appear very strongly to travel at the speed of light and according to the afore-stated, they must be massless. Massless neutrinos have a problem in that one is unable to explain the phenomenon of neutrino oscillations because this requires massive neutrinos. Experiments appear to strongly suggest that indeed, neutrinos most certainly are massive particles. While this solves the problem of neutrino oscillation, it directly leads to another problem, namely that of ``How can a massive particle travel at the speed of light? Is not this speed a preserve and prerogative of only massless particles?'' We argue herein that in principle, it is possible for massive particles to travel at the speed of light. In presenting the present letter, our hope is that this may aid or contribute significantly in solving the said problem of ``How can massive particles travel at the speed of light?

This study suggests a mechanical interpretation of Wheller’s model of the charge. According to the suggested interpretation, the oppositely charged particles are connected through the vortical lines of the current thus create a close contour “input-output” whose parameters determine the properties of the charge and spin. Depending on the energetic state of the system, the contour can be structurized into the units of the second and thirs order (photons). It is found that, in the framework of this interpretation, the charge is equivalent to the momentum. The numerical value of the unit charge has also been calculated proceeding from this basis. A system of the relations, connecting the charge to the constants of radiation (the Boltzmann, Wien, and Stefan-Boltzmann constants, and the fine structure constant) has been obtained: this give a possibility for calculating all these constants through the unit charge.

Consideration of the relative motion of a bar magnet and a coil played a key role in Einstein's production of Special Relativity. In the frame where the bar magnet is moving and a coil is at rest, an EMF is generated in the coil as a consequence of the curl of E equation. In the frame where the bar magnet is at rest, an EMF is produced in the coil because its electrons are moving in a way such that the magnetic field is producing forces on them. We consider the complementary situation where instead of a bar magnet generating a magnetic field we have a point charge generating an electric field. We will see that in order to satisfy the Principle of Relativity changes must be made to the Lorentz force law.

It is shown that contrary to this current belief that the electrostatic potential difference between the two conductors of a capacitor is the same potential difference between the two poles of the battery which has charged it, the first is two times more than the second. We see the influence of this in the experiments performed for determination of charge and mass of the electron.

The physical importance of the stress-energy tensor is twofold: at the one hand, it is a fundamental quantity appearing on the equations of mechanics; at the other hand, this tensor is the source of the gravitational field. Due to this importance, two different procedures have been developed to find this tensor for a given physical system. The first of the systematic procedures gives the canonical tensor, but this tensor is not usually symmetric and it is repaired, via the Belifante and Rosenfeld formula, to give the Hilbert tensor associated to the second procedure. After showing the physical deficiencies of the canonical and Hilbert tensors, we introduce a new and generalized tensor $\Theta^{\mu\nu}$ without such deficiencies. This $\Theta^{\mu\nu}$ is (i) symmetric, (ii) conserved, (iii) in agreement with the energy and momentum of a system of charges interacting via NILI potentials $\Lambda^\mu(R(t))$, and (\textbf{iv}) properly generalizes the Belifante and Rosenfeld formula, with the Hilbert tensor being a special case of $\Theta^{\mu\nu}$.

For a point charge in a uniform external electric field the laws of classical electromagnetism are currently thought to imply an infinite self-force acting on the charge, in the opposite direction of the external force. This is a physically bizarre situation. We show here that this is not actually implied by the laws of classical electromagnetism. The problem with the standard approach turns out to be that it incorrectly tacitly assumes that the self-force is generated by acceleration induced by the external field when in reality the self-force is generated by acceleration induced by the sum of the external field and the self-force field itself.

The RLC circuit equation is derived step-by-step from basic equations of classical electrodynamics. The system is shown to be oscillating even if elements of the linear current would not interact with each other. Their mutual electromagnetic interaction due to acceleration of charges results in the phenomenon that looks like the increase of the effective mass of the charged particles. The increase of the mass makes the oscillations more persistent with respect to the damping caused by the friction.

The natural constants $G$, $h$, $e$ and $m_e$ are commonly used but are themselves difficult to measure experimentally with a high precision. Defining the Planck Ampere in terms of the square root of Planck momentum, referred to here as Quintessence momentum, and by assigning a formula for the electron as a magnetic monopole in terms of $e$ and $c$, a formula for the Rydberg constant can be derived. $G$, $h$, $e$ and $m_e$ can then each be written in terms of more precise constants; the speed of light $c$ (fixed value), the Rydberg constant (12 digit precision) and alpha, the fine structure constant (10 digit precision).

Electrodynamics can be presented in the course of physics as a chapter, or special case of continuum mechanics. At the macroscopic level of description it is the mechanics of an incompressible elastic-plastic medium with point defects. The key point is the properties of these defects. Currently, however, their derivation from the first principles does not seem to be feasible. So, in the present report I discuss the minimum requirements that must be imposed on the term of the "external" force in the Lame equation in order that the resulting system of equations appeared to be isomorphic to Maxwell's equations.

The notion of the center of an electrostatic charge distribution is introduced. Then, it is investigated in which problems the notion may be useful. It is seen that in many problems with positive and negative charge contents (for example, image problems) the notion works nice.

It is mentioned that in physics, much like in everyday life, we are vitally interested in certain abstract concepts, such as, geometry, number, time, or for that matter, monetary value. And contrary to usual views, we can never ever really know what such abstract concepts are. Instead, all that we may know are specic models of such concepts. This state of aairs has direct relevance upon the long ongoing disputes related to time in physics. In particular, the paper indicates the exaggeration in claims according to which \time as an independent concept has no place in physics".

In a system, coupling between the large number of charged particles will induce potential Φ. When temperature T and potential Φ concurrently exist in the system, the particle potential energy and kinetic energy would satisfy the probabilistic statistical distribution. Based on such consideration, we established the quantum statistical distribution for the particle. When temperature T → 0, and the potential is extremely low, all the particles in the system would approach the ground-state-level distribution.

In the process to combine two charged systems, potential-different systems, we testified that energy would transfer from the high-potential system to the low-potential one, during which the entropy of the two systems show corresponding changes.

In a system consisting of a large number of charged particles, the potential energy of the in-system particles satisfy probability distribution. Starting from such consideration, we defined the partition function Z and get the particles in-system distribution function N_i, and obtained the Lagrangian multiplier 1/(qΦ) by using the Lagrange's multiplication method.

If a system is consisted of a large number of charged particles, any one of the system's particles would couple with its neighbors by dissimilar strengths. Therefore, the system's particles would produce dissimilar potentials, which satisfy the probability distribution. To make the potential induced by wave number k an exact differential, we introduced the function λ. In this way, we defined the potential function Φ and entropy function S of the system.

When a charged particle couples through its field with another particle, and based on the dissimilar coupling strengths,it produces the 3 different potential functions ', namely, the Coulomb potential, weak coupling potential and Yukawa potential. The 3 potentials show the common characteristics: They are all periodic functions in time-space. Under the influence of those potentials, a particle takes periodic motions in space. The author notes that the electric field strength of an isolated charged particle would not show the divergent phenomenon.

When discussing the free electromagnetic field, the author takes the electric field and magnetic field as two physical events on the time-space coordinate system. In line with the restricted theory of relativity, the author discusses the particle characteristics of the free electromagnetic field, and deems that the electromagnetic particle and the form of particle-captured energy are in perfect conformity with the Planck quantum assumption. In the ending part of the paper, the author has discussed the value of action exerted by dissimilar particles.

Starting from the Gauss field equation, the author of this paper sets up a group of electromagnetic field functions and a continuity equation which depicts the electric and magnetic fields. This group of equations is in perfect conformity with the Maxwell equation. By using these function groups we derived another group of wave equation of the free electromagnetic field, in which the wave amplitude is the function of frequency ! and wave number k.

Sergio Rojas wrote an article about derivation of classical harmonic oscillator. This derivation is more clear for students. Some sentences are added here which still more visualize his derivation. A derivation of the Pythagorean theorem from kinetic energy law is added. Such derivations are a way, how to improve visualization of fundamental theories of physics, and to visualize their derivations and problems.

The generalized Maxwell equations in vacuum are basically the equations for steady states, which satisfy both energy and force conservation laws. However, superpositions of the steady states often break those conservation laws, although the generalized Maxwell equations are kept. To study those cases, we derived electromagnetic-dynamics equations, which include the generalized Maxwell equations, energy and force conservation laws, and dynamics of scalar fields. These equations explain that the scalar fields may work as the aether propagating the electromagnetic wave, and scalar waves may work as the gravitational waves.

The generalized Maxwell equations in vacuum are basically the same with Dirac's extended Maxwell equations, although intrinsic charges and currents are defined by the time differential and gradation of scalar fields, respectively. Consequently, the electromagnetic stress-energy tensors make important conservation laws. Then, we found scalar fields acting like the gravitational wave interacting with the electromagnetic wave. Interestingly, those gravitational waves due to the scalar fields push out the electromagnetic waves. Moreover, there is a possibility of the existence of the materials, from which we feel no gravitational forces although the electromagnetic waves are kicked out by those gravitational waves. We also discussed about the relation with weight.

In the present article we argue that it is possible to write down Schrödinger representation of Navier-Stokes equation via Riccati equation. The proposed approach, while differs appreciably from other method such as what is proposed by R. M. Kiehn, has an advantage, i.e. it enables us extend further to quaternionic and biquaternionic version of Navier-Stokes equation, for instance via Kravchenko's and Gibbon's route. Further observation is of course recommended in order to refute or verify this proposition.

Quaternion space and its respective Quaternion Relativity (it also may be called as Rotational Relativity) has been defined in a number of papers including [1], and it can be shown that this new theory is capable to describe relativistic motion in elegant and straightforward way. Nonetheless there are subsequent theoretical developments which remains an open question, for instance to derive Maxwell equations in Q-space. Therefore the purpose of the present paper is to derive a consistent description of Maxwell equations in Q-space. First we consider a simplified method similar to the Feynman's derivation of Maxwell equations from Lorentz force. And then we present another derivation method using Dirac decomposition, introduced by Gersten (1999). Further observation is of course recommended in order to refute or verify some implication of this proposition.

Motivated by the growing evidence of universality and chaos in QFT and string theory, we study the Tsallis non-extensive statistics (with a non-additive q-entropy) of an ensemble of fractal strings and branes of different dimensionalities. Non-equilibrium systems with complex dynamics in stationary states may exhibit large fluctuations of intensive quantities which are described in terms of generalized statistics. Tsallis statistics is a particular representative of such class. The non-extensive entropy and probability distribution of a canonical ensemble of fractal strings and branes is studied in terms of their dimensional spectrum which leads to a natural upper cutoff in energy and establishes a direct correlation among dimensions, energy and temperature. The absolute zero temperature (Kelvin) corresponds to zero dimensions (energy) and an infinite temperature corresponds to infinite dimensions. In the concluding remarks some applications of fractal statistics, quasi-particles, knot theory, quantum groups and number theory are briefly discussed within the framework of fractal strings and branes.

The molecules of the reflecting surface are sources of Huygens' wavelets which make the reflected wavefront. These molecules can be nonplanar to the extent of a fraction of the wavelength while yet there exists practically reflected plane wavefront.

In surface evaporation the liquid increases the potential energy of its molecules by taking heat while their kinetic energies remain unchanged. In such state the molecules are in the form of a gas (vapor). We know that in an isothermal system of a liquid and a gas adjacent to it, the temperature of the gas decreases due to the surface evaporation while some net heat is transferred from the gas to the liquid. So, if the temperature of the gas is lower than the temperature of the liquid only in a sufficiently small extent, some net heat will be still transferred from the gas to the liquid due to the surface evaporation and finally the gas and liquid (and vapor) will be isothermal (in a temperature lower than the initial temperature). This matter violates the Clausius (or refrigerator) statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

Density of lines of the magnetodynamic field arising from two parallel currents is more in the regions out of the distance between the two wires and then the molecular magnetic dipoles of air are pulled toward these regions and create a bigger pressure there which causes the two wires to be pushed (or to be attracted) toward each other. A similar reasoning applied conversely to two antiparallel currents justifies their repulsion arising from the created air pressure difference. Thus, most probably, railgun will not work very well in the absence of the air.

By recurring to Geometric Probability methods, it is shown that the coupling constants, EM; W; C associated with Electromagnetism, Weak and the Strong (color ) force are given by the ratios of the ratios of the measures of the Shilov boundaries...

We present the random representations for the Navier-Stokes vorticity equations for an incompressible fluid in a smooth manifold with smooth boundary and reflecting boundary conditions for the vorticity.

In a gas-like ether, the duality between the oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which are transverse to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves, becomes a triality with the longitudinal oscillations of motion of the ether, if electric field, magnetic field and motion are coexistent and mutually perpendicular. It must be shown, therefore, that if electromagnetic waves comprise also longitudinal condensational oscillations of a gas-like ether, analogous to sound waves in a material gas, then all three aspects of such waves must propagate together along identical wave-fronts. To this end, the full characteristic hyperconoids are derived for the equations governing the motion and the electric and magnetic field-strengths in a gas-like ether, in three space variables and time. It is shown that they are, in fact, identical. The equations governing the motion and the electric and magnetic field-strengths in such an ether, and their common characteristic hyperconoid, are all invariant under Galilean transformation.

A new theory of the refraction of light is presented, using the mathematical fact that the equations of acoustics and optics are identical and that light may therefore be treated as waves in a fluid ether. Light waves are penetrated by the more slowly moving constituents of a refractive medium and so the rays behind them are perturbed and made wavy as they are diffracted around material particles. The arc-length along a wavy ray is thus increased by a factor...

It is shown that Planck�s energy distribution for a black-body radiation field can be simply derived for a gas-like ether with Maxwellian statistics. The gas consists of an infinite variety of particles, whose masses are integral multiples n of the mass of the unit particle, the abundance of n-particles being proportional to...

We regard a classical field as medium. Then additional parameter is appearing. It is the local fourvelocity vector of field. If the one itself regard as potential of same field then all field�s self energies became finite. As examples electromagnetic, mechanical, pionic, and somewhat gluonic fields are regarding