The recently observed gravitational wave background is explained in terms of the quantum modification of the general relativity (Qmoger). Some UFO, FRB and supernova flares also can be explained in terms of Qmoger.

In the present article, we classically derive an analytic formula of the Remnant Mass of a Quasi-Binary Black Hole. The Quasi Black Hole concept comes from a Theory Of Everything we have developed few years ago.

We are demonstrating new relationships between the Hawking temperature, the CMB temperature, and the Planck scale. When comprehended at a deep level, this is in line with recent developments in the quantization of cosmology and its connection to the Planck scale. This is also entirely consistent with a recently published approach to quantizing Einstein’s general theory of relativity.

The characteristic equation of which spiral theCyclone its double spiral shape, whose mathematical equation has already been definedas Cote’s spiral, Gobato et al. (2022) and similarly Lindblad (1964) show shape of double spiral galaxies. In physics and in the mathematics of plane curves, a Cotes’s is one of a family of spirals classified by Roger Cotes. The image captured by Voyager 2, the Neptune’s Great Dark Spot (GDS) presents a characteristic that resembles a Cote’s Spiral. Its ellipsoidal shape is due to the rotation of the differentplanetary rotation layers in opposite directions, increasing and compressing the GDS, from the lower to upper layers of Neptune’s atmosphere.

In order to detect and decode the phase-modulated signals of gravitational waves in noise, you need an antenna and a receiver in the $mu$Hz range with special properties. The necessary technology is described in detail.

Um die phasenmodulierten Signale von Gravitationswellen im Rauschen zu entdecken und zu dekodieren, benötigt man einen Empfänger im $mu$Hz-Bereich mit speziellen Merkmalen. Die notwendige Technik wird ausführlich beschrieben.<p>In order to detect and decode the phase-modulated signals of gravitational waves in noise, a receiver in the $mu$Hz range with special features is required. The necessary technology is described in detail.

The relative velocity between objects will affect the effect between them. The effect caused by the chase between objects is called the general Doppler effect. The speed of gravitational field energy transmission is limited, so there is also a chase relationship between the gravitational field energy and the object. This paper explores whether the Doppler effect of the gravitational field can cause the slow expansion of planetary orbits, and then thinks whether the accelerating expansion of the universe also comes from the Doppler effect of this gravitational field.

A star — about the size of the Sun — orbits the nearby black hole BH1. The duo emits a gravitational wave that affects Earth's atmospheric pressure. With this receiving antenna and an extremely narrow-band receiver, we measure and evaluate the signal of the binary system. It is phase modulated with seven different frequencies that obey a simple formation law. The parameters of the PM allow the orbital periods, masses and positions of the planets to be estimated. The unexpectedly high values of the modulation index suggest that gravitational waves propagate slower than the speed of light.

The two stars in TZ Mensae emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 2.70 $mu$Hz, which may be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows eleven companions. The orbital times of the planets fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The black hole in Cygnus X1 orbits a supergiant and emits gravitational waves with a frequency of 4.134 $mu$Hz. The GW can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows eight companions. The orbital times of the planets fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in RR Caeli emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 76.22 $mu$Hz, which may be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows nine companions -- including the planet already discovered with electromagnetic waves. Identical values of the orbital frequency are measured with both methods. The orbital times of the remaining planets fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in textit{R Canis Majoris} emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 20.33 $mu$Hz, which may be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{nine} companions -- one was suspected using electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The protoplanetary disk orbiting textit{V4046 Sagittarii} may contain planets. The central binary system $A1-A2$ emits gravitational waves with a frequency of 9.56 $mu$Hz, which may be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW provides evidence that there are textit{twelve} rings that are not rotationally symmetric. Some may contain young planets. The orbital times fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the asymmetry of the mass distribution to be estimated.

So far, no planets have been discovered in the binary star system, which is 300 LY away. The two stars emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 586 nHz, which can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{eleven} companions -- unseen by electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The Infrared Astronomical Satellite has detected an excess of infrared radiation in der Umgebung von textit{Alpha CrB}. This suggests the presence of a large disc of dust and material around the star, prompting speculation of a planetary or proto-planetary system. Although the binary system is only 76.5 light years away, no planets have been discovered so far.The two stars emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 1333.426 nHz, which can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{twelve} companions -- unseen by electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in textit{Kepler-35} emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 1116 nHz, which can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{twelve} companions -- one was discovered using electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in Kepler-34 emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 833 nHz, which can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows twelve companions - one was discovered using electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in TOI-1338 emit gravitational waves with a frequency of $1.58~mu$Hz, which can be measured here on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows seven companions -- two of which were discovered using electromagnetic waves. The orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's law. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

The two stars in textit{Kepler-16} emit gravitational waves with a frequency of 563.5 nHz, which can be measured on Earth. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{eleven} companions. The orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's law, an improved version of the Titus-Bode rule. The physical interpretation of the result of the phase modulation is difficult, but allows the masses of the planets to be estimated.

This article invokes non-standard analysis throughout physics to generallygain insight towards how to holographically ``de-centralize" hidden conformalmodes (large central tower OPEs). Ultimately, measurements, continuum, andsingularity mechanics are dualized against Wilson partitions, chaosrepresentation, and RG flow to produce a candidate universal topological fieldtheory. Many results are shown along the way, but the primary resultsestablished are: sub-harmonic chaos in $U(1)$ gauge theory is identified andquantized in the the flat space celestial hologram, a virial model ofcircuit-information is asymptotically probed and found dual to a Hubble-likeequation of state, and a background model of loop-information in Einstein'sgravity is found to be a loop gauge theory of d=4 $2times x2$ Gaussian UnitaryEnsembles, establishing it as a candidate of non-perturbative, loop QCD ingravity. The state preparation of this GUE 2x2 M-gauge simultaneously producesa post-selected supersymmetry algebra (over the canonical log-partition) whichsurvives all possible no-go tests. Finally, the the canonical $2x2$ GUEpartition state identifies a $frac{1}{8}$-BPS topological phase measurementprepared as a quasi-continuous state of information decay; the partiallyconformal background is identified as a $frac{1}{4}$-BPS shadow and given amechanism of spin-entanglement. Notably also, the Cosmological Hierarchy problem is resolved, the finestructure constant is derived (up to 5 orders of magnitude) using analyticblack hole decay, and a new, $21-pt$ emergent universal holographic constraintbound between celestial gravitons, quantum information stability is shown atloop level, which further resolves the naturalness of $d=4$ emergent spacetimeand the directedness of time.

The energy spectrum of gravitons emitted by the black hole binary as a gravity waves iscalculated in the first part of the article. Then, the total quantum loss of energy, is calculatedin the Schwinger theory of gravity. Using analogy with the binary stars, we calculate thegraviton spectrum of the binary galaxies discovered by the JWST of NASA.

So far it has been assumed that the star system HD 75747, also known as HR 3524 or RS Chamaeleontis (RS Cha), has only textit{one} companion. A gravitational wave at 13.86 $mu$Hz is calculated from the orbital period of 1.67 days. The decoding of the phase modulations of the GW shows textit{eleven} companions. The orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's law, an improved version of the Titus-Bode rule.

Eight planets of the binary star Kepler-47 modulate the gravitational wave at 3.1 $mu$Hz. Three of them are already known. The measured orbital times fit very well with the predictions of Dermott's rule, an improved version of the Titus-Bode rule. The phase modulation measurement technique is explained in detail.

The Kepler space telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) have discovered numerous multiple star systems emitting GW. Some of these have planets that phase modulate the GW and allow the planetary mass to be determined. The detection techniques are explained in detail using examples.

Mit dem Kepler space telescope und dem Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) wurden zahlreiche Mehrfach-Sternsysteme entdeckt, die GW abstrahlen. Manche davon besitzen Planeten, die die GW phasenmodulieren. Die Nachweistechniken werden an Beispielen ausführlich erklärt.<p>The Kepler space telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) have discovered numerous multiple star systems emitting GW. Some of these have planets that phase modulate the GW and allow the planetary mass to be determined. The detection techniques are explained in detail using examples.

If we talk about Stellar Aberration, then we think of the form of Stellar Aberration that was first discovered and explained by Bradley. In addition to Bradley's Stellar Aberration, which can also be defined as Relative Stellar Aberration, we will define Absolute Stellar Aberration based on just one measurement. Here after we will refer to the Absolute Stellar Aberration as "ASA". We will try to explain in a few words why it is necessary to measure and interpret Stellar Aberration in this way. Suppose we performed two measurements of the Doppler Effect within six months. If we don't know the results of those measurements, but only difference between them, then we cannot determine the radial velocities with which the observer moves with respect to the star. We will prove that similar reasoning can be applied in the case of Stellar Aberration as defined by Bradley. Knowing only the difference between the two measurements of the Stellar Aberration, we are not able to determine the transverse velocities the observer moves with respect to the line of sight, but only their difference. Using the results of "ASA" measurements, we will determine a Stationary Frame of Reference and after that derive formulas for Relative and Absolute Stellar Aberration.

The problem of cosmological acceleration (PCA) is usually considered in the framework of General Relativity and here the main uncertainty is how the background space is treated. In the approaches where it is flat, PCA is usually treated as a manifestation of dark energy and (as acknowledged in the literature) currently its nature is a mystery. On the other hand, if the background space is curved then a problem arises why the observed value of the cosmological constant is as is. Following the results of our publications, we show that the solution of PCA does not contain uncertainties because cosmological acceleration is an inevitable kinematical consequence of quantum theory in semiclassical approximation. In this approach, background space and its geometry (metric and connection) are not used and the cosmological constant problem does not arise.

In den Langzeitdaten des Luftdruckes findet man die GW des Dreifach-Sternsystems Algol bei 8.073 µHz, die mit vier unterschiedlichen Frequenzen phasenmoduliert ist. Zwei Frequenzen können dem Erdorbit um die Sonne und Algol-C zugeordnet werden. Die beiden anderen könnten durch zwei bisher nicht entdeckte Sterne Algol-D und Algol-E erzeugt werden. Der hohe Modulationsindex aller vier PM lässt sich nur erklären, wenn die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit der Gravitationswellen deutlich kleiner ist als die Lichtgeschwindigkeit.<p>In the long-term data of the air pressure one finds the GW of the triple star system Algol at $8.073~mu$Hz, which is phase-modulated with four different frequencies. Two frequencies can be assigned to Earth's orbit around the Sun and Algol-C. The other two could be generated by two previously undiscovered stars Algol-D and Algol-E. The high modulation index of all four PM can only be explained if the propagation speed of the gravitational waves is significantly lower than the speed of light.

In the long-term data of the air pressure one finds the GW of the triple star system Algol at $8.073~mu$Hz, which is phase-modulated with four different frequencies. Two frequencies can be assigned to Earth's orbit around the Sun and Algol-C. The other two could be generated by two previously undiscovered stars Algol-D and Algol-E. The high modulation index of all four PM can only be explained if the propagation speed of the gravitational waves is significantly lower than the speed of light.

After compensation for phase modulation and frequency drift, the pulsar's GW can be detected in the records of the interferometer Livingston. The signatures agree with the known values measured with electromagnetic waves. The measured amplitude modulation of the GW in the daily rhythm shows the directivity of the antenna.

After compensation for phase modulation and frequency drift, the pulsar's GW can be detected in the records of all three interferometers. The signatures agree with the known values measured with electromagnetic waves.

Nach Kompensation von Phasenmodulation und Frequenzdrift kann das GW des Pulsars in den Aufzeichnungen aller drei Interferometer nachgewiesen werden. Die Signaturen stimmen mit den bekannten Werten überein, die mit elektromagnetischen Wellen gemessenen wurden. (mit Ergänzungen)<p>After compensation for phase modulation and frequency drift, the pulsar's GW can be detected in the recordings of all three interferometers. The signatures agree with the known values u200bu200bmeasured with electromagnetic waves. (with additions)

This paper suggests a specification for dark matter and an explanation for dark energy. This paper features two key hypotheses. First, this paper assumes that nature includes six isomers of most elementary particles. Five of the six isomers associate with dark matter. Second, this paper assumes that multipole expansions can prove useful regarding gravity. Some terms in the expansions associate with gravitational attraction. Some terms associate with dilution of attraction. Dilution can associate with mutual repulsion between objects and with dark energy. This paper suggests that those two assumptions lead to explanations for data that pertain to the rate of expansion of the universe, the formation of galaxies, and other aspects of cosmology and astrophysics.

After compensation for phase modulation and frequency drift, the pulsar's GW can be detected in the records of all three interferometers. The signatures agree with the known values measured with electromagnetic waves.

In the last years, the liquid metallic hydrogen model has proven to be a viable alternative to the standard solar model, almost exclusively due to the work of Pierre-Marie Robitaille (2002, 2009, 2011, 2013). By modeling the density of both the liquid metallic and the molecular state of hydrogen from first principles, the pressure at the phase transition can be estimated, resulting in about 550 GPa. In the liquid metallic hydrogen model, this phase transition defines the photosphere which can therefore be considered real surface, as it is consistent with many observations. However, considerable pressure must be exerted by the above chromosphere, which is assumed to consist of molecular hydrogen, albeit in a compressed, liquid form. Deriving a relation between pressure and density from the above considerations, it can be shown that the chromosphere has an approximate thickness of not more than 8000 km, in agreement with observations.

From elementary ecliptic calculations, we found a solar altitude angle of $07.87°$ (not more than $09.87°$ with respect to the ground of the Tranquility base) instead of a minimal solar altitude angle of $16.2°$ at the official lunar landing site (Tranquility base) during the Apollo 11 EVA (extravehicular activity). Since the sidereal rotation period of the moon is particularly large, during the period were both astronauts were outside the Lunar Module of the Apollo 11 mission, the solar angle variation in the lunar sky was only $0.888°$. Moreover, the smaller solar altitude angle, the larger absolute precision of the solar altitude angle is reached by the shadow measurements on a horizontal surface.

An analytical method is presented for tangent transfers (Hohman type transfers) between non-coaxial elliptical orbits. Since Hohmann transfers are thought not to apply to non-coaxial orbits, this method generalizes the Hohmann transfer, typically used only between circular orbits. Since tangent transfers are less complex, as they require no change in direction, they offer an alternative to other orbital transfer and rendezvous methods.

Physics has yet to complete a catalog of properties of objects, complete a list of elementary particles, describe dark matter, and explain dark energy phenomena. This paper shows modeling that catalogs properties (such as charge and mass) and elementary particles (such as quarks and gluons). The catalog of properties includes known properties and suggests new properties. The catalog of elementary particles includes all known elementary particles and suggests new elementary particles. The modeling has bases in integer arithmetic and complements popular modeling that has bases in space-time coordinates. This paper shows applications that combine popular modeling, the expanded set of properties, and the expanded set of elementary particles. Applications describe dark matter, explain known ratios of dark matter effects to ordinary matter effects, point to possible resolutions for so-called tensions (between data and popular modeling) regarding dark energy phenomena, and suggest insight about galaxy evolution.

We suggest a new explanation of flatness of galaxies rotation curves without invoking dark matter. For this purpose a new gravitational tensor field is introduced in addition to the metric tensor.

The binary star system HMC (J0806.3+1527) emits gravitational waves near 6220.5 $mu$Hz, which can be detected with superconducting gravimeters. The signal amplitude can be raised by in-phase addition of many data sets to the point where the second derivative of the orbital frequency can also be measured precisely. Knowledge of the frequency evolution is necessary to understand the transport of matter in this mysterious stellar system.

The binary star system HMC (J0806.3+1527) emits gravitational waves near 6220.5 $mu$Hz, which can be detected with superconducting gravimeters. A newly developed method improves the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal so much that the second derivative of the orbital frequency can now also be precisely measured. This frequency evolution is needed to understand the transport of matter in this mysterious star system.

The Doppler effect is one of the most important and most elementary phenomenon in nature. If we accept that fact, then there is no need to use any other theories to understand its essence. There is only one Doppler effect, regardless of whether the signal between the sender and the receiver travels directly or through a medium. Therefore, there is only one formula that is valid in all cases. The goal of this paper is to determine that formula. Using the obtained results, we will show that the one-way speed of light can be measured by physical experiment.

The method for finding the signal from the gravitational wave in the interferometrical data of the LIGO observatory is demonstrated on the test example of the gravitational event GW150914. The method is based on the use of correlation analysis, reasoning from the fact that the shape of the signal to be found is known, as well on the use of computational statistics methods. The developed method was applied for the search for signals in the LIGO data for a 32 seconds time-frame inside standard data block of 16 s prior and 16 s after the GW150914 event. The performance of the method and its advantages for the analysis of signals in a noise are shown. The paper includes analysis of possibility of the existence of other useful signals in the noise signal where the chirp of the event GW150914 was detected.

The binary star system J0651 is expected to be be one of the brightest sources of gravitational waves in our galaxy. Despite its known frequency, the radiation could not be detected so far. A new method eliminates the strong phase modulation caused by the Earth's orbit and drastically reduces the bandwidth. Therefore, the GW may be identified in the records of numerous superconducting gravimeters. The determined parameters of GW agree well with the results of previous observations in the optical domain and the predictions of relativity.

Physics lacks a confirmed description of dark matter, has yet to develop an adequate understanding of dark energy, and includes unverified conjectures regarding new elementary particles. This essay features modeling that addresses those problems and explains otherwise unexplained data. Our modeling starts from five bases — multipole expansions for the electromagnetic and gravitational fields associated with an object, the list of known elementary particles, some aspects of mathematics for isotropic harmonic oscillators, concordance cosmology, and a conjecture that the universe includes six isomers of most elementary particles. The multipole expansions — which have use in conjunction with Newtonian kinematics modeling, special relativity, and general relativity — lead to a catalog of kinematics properties such as charge, magnetic moment, mass, and repulsive gravitational pressure. The multipole expansions also point to all known elementary particles, some properties of those particles, and properties of some would-be elementary bosons and elementary fermions. The harmonic-oscillator mathematics points to Gauge symmetries regarding some elementary bosons. The would-be elementary fermions lack charge and would measure as dark matter. The conjecture regarding six isomers of most elementary particles rounds out and dominates our specification for dark matter. Five of the isomers form the basis for most dark matter. Our modeling explains ranges of observed ratios of dark matter effects to ordinary matter effects — for the universe, galaxy clusters, two sets of galaxies observed at high redshifts, three sets of galaxies observed at modest redshifts, and one type of depletion of cosmic microwave background radiation. Our description of repulsive gravitational pressure points toward resolution for tensions — between data and modeling — regarding the recent rate of expansion of the universe, resolution for possible tensions regarding large-scale clumping, and resolution for possible tensions regarding interactions between neighboring galaxies. Our work regarding gravity, dark matter, and elementary particles suggests characterizations for eras that might precede the inflationary epoch, a mechanism that might have produced baryon asymmetry, mechanisms that govern the rate of expansion of the universe, and insight about galaxy formation and evolution.

25 years ago, weak permanent oscillations were discovered in the records of gravimeters, which are not excited by earthquakes and are also not natural resonances of the earth. Proposed causes like wind and ocean waves are ruled out because of their unreliability. The oscillation at 836.69~$mu$Hz exhibits most typical modulations expected for gravitational waves. Their frequency stability can also explain the surprising, previously unknown phase coherence discovered in the records of eight gravimeters. The gravitational waves emitted by the countless binary star systems in our galaxy are probably the cause of the strikingly strong background noise of gravimeters.

Phase modulation of gravitational waves often occupies a large bandwidth and degrades the S/N. This paper explains the basics, properties and implications of PM with examples from astronomy as well as how to eliminate PM. The focus is on the search for gravitational waves.

The main intention of this paper is to start an open discussion about a new model with the potential to find a better understanding of several observations within astronomy. As a first step a model of an entraining force is introduced based on the observation that the distances between earth and moon respectively earth and sun are slightly increasing over the year. Based on further explanation on how to calculate the entraining force and its corresponding counter-torque similar to law of induction but for moving matter. Further on an outlook is given about how this force may contribute to a better understanding about how accretion disks or planetary ring systems are forming or how it may drive the differential rotation on the surface ofgas giants but also within galaxies related to their rotary curve. In a second step the consequences of the concept are described related to the current interpretation of red-shift. If the model of the entraining force will be further verified the concept of the expanding universe might have to be revised.

Identification of the crab pulsar spectral line in the records of LIGO and measurement of the frequency drift. After removing the known frequency drift of the Crab pulsar, sufficiently long data segments from the LIGO interferometers can be narrow-band filtered in order to reduce the noise. The spectral line at 59.23 Hz is clearly visible in 84 records of L1, H1 and V1. The spectral lines of other pulsars of neighboring frequency can be separated well due to different values of the frequency drift.

The velocity of any Keplerian orbiter is well known, but its time derivative is a centripetal acceleration, not an attractive one. Furthermore the rectilinear accelerated trajectory of Newton's attraction is not part of the Keplerian conics. Newton's postulate of attraction is therefore not consistent with Kepler's laws. We demonstrate this geometric reality by the factual kinematics and expose its consequences from the bodies falling, to the rotation speed of the galaxies, passing through Einstein's equivalence principle or the stability of the solar system.

Silicon is the most obvious potential substi- tute for carbon, and the Possibility of Silicon- Based Life is the focus of the work. An analysis of the sites of action of four silicon-based exobiological nanomolecules, determined by the distribution of electrical charges around the nanomolecules atoms called: ASi, CSi, GSi and TSi. The Van der Waals radius distribution calculations have been determined via ab initio Hartree-Fock methods, Unrestricted and Restrict (UHF and RHF) in the set of basis used Effective Core Potential (ECP) minimal basis, and CC-pVTZ (Correlation-consistent valenceonly basis sets triple-zeta). Polymers can also be assembled as chains of alternating elements such as Si-C, Si-O, and B-N. Alternation with carbon is used to some extent in terran organisms (such as C-C-N in proteins and C-C-C-O-P-O in nucleic acids), and silated compounds play important structural roles in the cells of many organisms on Earth.

Here I show some statistics of all the 93 gravitational wave (GW) events observed by LIGO in 3 phases during the last 6 years, with 3, 8 and 82 GW events for each phase. The detection sensitivity in O3 phase was increased by 40\% than that in O2 phase. The co-working ratio of the two LIGO observatories was 0.42 (O2 phase) and 0.60 (O3 phase), respectively. The product of sensitive volume and time (VT) was thus increased by a factor of $1.4^3 \times (0.60/0.42) \approx 4$. Statistical analyses of all the 93 GW events suggest that the observations so far do not meet an intuitive expectation, say, with higher detection sensitivity and longer observation time, we should observe more GW events.

The emphasis is not on precisely specifying the physical meaning of the scheme of the proposed gravitational equations, but on the calculation process from which they derive and whether they can be consistent and provide a calculation alternative that allows greater simplicity in obtaining acceptably satisfactory results to those already veried by general relativity.

Calculations show that the sensitivity of common gravimeters is sufficient to measure GW in wide frequency range around 0.1 Hz. Initial evaluations have confirmed that it is possible to extract the coordinates and frequency drift of known binary star systems with good accuracy from multi-year data records of gravimeters distributed around the world. This opens the possibility of an Earth-based search for continuous GW several years before LISA.

Superconducting gravimeters respond to deformations of the test body Earth by gravitational waves. The frequencies of continuous gravitational waves are identified by means of selective integration of long-term data. The modified superhet method is a suitable method to determine the direction of the GW source. The measured frequency deviation of the phase modulation exceeds the upper limit allowed by the Doppler effect. This problem can be can be solved by assuming that the propagation velocity of GW is lower than the speed of light.

Split Property of the black hole information paradox, the problem of the loss of information from black holes, are discussed by means of a novel approach based on the evolution of a quantum scalar field in a background that contains a black hole. We show that the paradox cannot be resolved by assuming split property. A new definition of the area of the horizon is proposed. The horizon area is an observable, and the value of this observable for a black hole is related to its entropy. The entropy of a black hole has been derived. The loss of information from a black hole is a consequence of the loss of entropy. We also calculated the Hawking temperature and some thermodynamic entities of black holes.

The COBE, WMAP, and Planck data analyses exhibit that the CMB restframe can be seen as a fundamental, absolute space, the CMB-space. All Earth flyby radio Doppler data anomalies can be resolved by applying the general, classical Doppler formula (CMB-Doppler formula) of first order for two-way signals between earthbound Deep Space Network stations and a spacecraft during an Earth flyby. For that purpose, the annually varying absolute velocity vector <b>u_e</b> of Earth is used, derived from the absolute velocity vector of the solar system barycenter, <b>u_sun</b>, magnitude <i>u_sun</i> = 369.82±0.11km s^-1, in direction of constellation Crater, near Leo. Together with the relative, asymptotic inbound and outbound velocity vectors <b>v_in</b> and <b>v_out</b> in the equatorial frame, we obtain the absolute inbound and outbound velocity vectors <b>u_in</b> and <b>u_out</b> in the equatorial frame. The relative, asymptotic inbound and outbound velocities are actually equal in magnitude (<i>v_in</i> = <i>v_out</i>), while the magnitudes of the absolute inbound and outbound velocities of a spacecraft are in general different (<i>u_in</i> ≠ <i>u_out</i>), leading to the apparent anomaly. Thus the use of the CMB-Doppler formula explains the so far as residual considered positive or negative differences in energy. The measured, different absolute velocities in the CMB rest frame explain the supposed radar ranging data residuals as well.

Oumuamua was the first interstellar object observed to pass through the solar system. It did not follow the expected hyperbolic path, as if the pull of the Sun’s gravity was less than expected. Off-gassing normally present in comets was not observed. A modified gravity hypothesis — cyclic gravity and cosmology (CGC) — is proposed here to explain this motion. This hypothesis also would entail a greatly simplified and cyclic cosmology, potentially resolving the Hubble tension controversy.

The dynamic space is structured by three fundamental elements, namely length, elementary electric charges (units) and forces. A spherical deformity of the space has occurred, which has created an equality of the peripheral and radial cohesive forces (Universal symmetry). Close to the Universe center this equality is breached, thus causing the Genesis of the primary form of matter and the Universal antigravity force, whereby the Hubble’s Law is proved. At the periphery of the Universe the dynamic formation of particles is turned back to the dynamic space and the vacuums of their cores end up into the vacuum-nonexistence, thus resulting the upgrading of entropy of the Universe. Actually, by the dissolution of the space deformations, the oriented forces (high entropy) are restored in the form of space cohesive forces (zero entropy). However, collisions of the charged particles take place onto the elastic membrane at the periphery of the Universe. The above membrane consequently oscillates and causes the acceleration of a residue of the charged particles towards the interior of the Universe and, since the charged particles arrive at the periphery of the Universe at the same centrifugal speed and are degraded by the same mechanism, they provoke a weak and constant Cosmic background radiation.

HM Cancri is expected to be be one of the brightest sources of gravitational waves in our galaxy. Despite its known frequency, the radiation could not be detected so far. A novel technique can compensate for phase modulation and detect this GW in the records of superconducting gravimeters. This new observational window will allow a deeper understanding of the enigmatic stellar system.

HM Cancri ist möglicherweise die intensivste Quelle kontinuierlicher GW in unserer Galaxie. Trotz bekannter Frequenz konnte die Strahlung mangels geeigneter Sensoren bisher nicht nachgewiesen werden. Ein neuartiges Verfahrens kann die Phasenmodulation kompensieren und diese CGW in den Aufzeichnungen supraleitender Gravimeter zweifelsfrei nachweisen. Diese neuartige Beobachtungsfenster wird ein tieferes Verständnis des rätselhaften Sternsystems ermöglichen. <p> HM Cancri is expected to be one of the brightest sources of gravitational waves in our galaxy. Despite its known frequency, the radiation could not be detected so far. A new technique can compensate for the phase modulation and detect this CGW in the records of supraconducting gravimeters beyond doubt. This novel observational window will allow a deeper understanding of the enigmatic stellar system.

One of the postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity is that the speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames regardless of the motion of the observer or source. This postulate also apply to the General Theory of Relativity. There are many experiments whose results are consistent with the assumption that gravity does not affect the speed of light. But notwithstanding all this we may argue that it has not been formally proved. One way to prove its correctness is to replace it with the opposite axiom, axiom of variable speed of light. If there is at least one experiment whose result would possibly be in contradiction with this axiom, then it must be rejected and the axiom of a constant speed of light must be accepted.

In this project, we have implemented our basic understanding of Pulsar Astronomy to calculate the Time Period of Vela Pulsar. Our choice of pulsar rests on the fact that it is the brightest object in the high energy gamma ray sky. The simplistic data set consisting of only voltage signals makes our preliminary attempt as closely accurate as possible. The observations had been made at 326.5 MHz through a cylindrically paraboloid telescope at Ooty. A higher frequency creates a much lower delay in the arrival time of pulses and makes our calculations even more accurate. Being an already widely studied celestial body, it gives us the opportunity to compare our findings and make necessary modifications.

We suggest progress regarding the following six physics opportunities. List all elementary particles. Describe dark matter. Explain ratios of dark matter to ordinary matter. Explain eras in the history of the universe. Link properties of objects. Interrelate physics models. We use models based on Diophantine equations.

The oscillation symmetry is extended to exoplanets. A systematic study is done on a wide selection of data. The following properties: masses, periods, radii and distances, when known, are studied in order to check their agreement with oscillation symmetry. It is shown that the data indeed oscillate. The parameters allowing to fit the data are discussed. It is shown that the same shape describes the oscillations of very different mass objects.

By using the gravitatomagnetic effect and the special relativity theory, it is possible to accurately compute the gravitational redshift, the perihelion precession of Mercury, and the refraction of light by the sun, which are initial bases proofs of the general relativity theory. So, it shows that basis of the general relativity theory does not exist. And in addition, the above corrections to the Lorentz force are presented as the gravitatomagnetic and electromagnetic effect and the effect of special relativistic Thomas–Wigner rotation.

The existence of opposite forces acting on astrophysical bodies, involve that their properties should obey to oscillation symmetry. The oscillation symmetry is applied to several astrophysical properties, like Nebulae radii and magnitudes, Local Group Galaxy masses, luminosities, and diameters, Comet radii, orbital periods, and eccentricities, Black hole masses, orbital periods, and distance from earth, Star masses, magnitudes, and distances from Sun. This symmetry is used to predict some still unknown astronomical properties, namely the properties of two additionnal possible solar planets. Using the predicted possible masses of these planets, the method allows to predict their possible densities, rotation durations, revolution periods, orbital speeds, and eccentricities.

Presented are logical arguments for Dark Matter. You are free not to get enlightened about that fact. But please pay respect to new dispositions of the Dark Matter and research methods in this note.

The use of parallax angles is one of the standard methods for determining stellar distance. The problem that arises in using this method is how to measure that angle. In order for the measurement to be correct, it is necessary for the object we are observing to be stationary in relation to the sun. This is generally not true. One way to overcome this problem is to observe the object from two different places at the same time. This would be technically possible but will probably never be realized. Another way to determine the distance is given in [1]. With certain assumptions, this is a mathematically completely correct method. After the publication of the third Gaia's catalog [2], we are now able to test the proposed method using real data. Unfortunately, for the majority of stars it is not possible to obtain the distance directly, but with the help of some additional measurements we would be able to indirectly determine the distance of such stars.

Starlight and radio waves from QSOs share the ability to be polarized. For many regions of the Milky Way the alignment of the polarization directions of starlight is evident. However, it is useful to have a numerical alignment function that can be used to judge the significance of the correlations. The Hub Test provides such a function. Surveying the Galaxy with data from two catalogs of polarized starlight, Heiles 2000 and Berdyugin 2014, reveals an unusually well-aligned region which is then studied in more detail. Applied to a catalog of polarized radio QSOs, Pelgrims 2014 which is in part derived from Jackson 2007, a survey reveals the most significantly aligned region, which is studied further. Stars and QSOs have contrasting characteristics in terms of distance, degree of polarization, and strength of the alignment. The two most significantly aligned samples of starlight and radio QSOs are analyzed here. The alignment of the starlight sample outperforms all other portions of the Galaxy at the scale of the survey, about ten degrees, while the QSO sample has its polarization directions focusing down on a point extremely close to the QSOs themselves on the sky.

Continuous gravitational waves are identified by their signatures: The amplitude is constant and the frequency increases slowly. In addition, the Doppler effect as a consequence of the Earth's orbit causes a characteristic phase modulation at 31.69 nHz. The long-term records from eleven superconducting gravimeters in Europe contain a set of spectral lines at 404.3 μHz that meet all three criteria and are likely generated by a gravitational wave. The determined values of frequency deviation and the time of maximum frequency deviation allow the calculation of the ecliptic coordinates of the source of the CGW.

This short paper points out that the so-called diameter of the inflated universe, approximately Θ ≈ 8.8 × 10^26 m, basically is very close to or perhaps even identical to what we can call the Hubble circumference: Θ ≈ 2πR = 2π×c/H , at a Hubble constant of 66 (km/s)/Mpc these values are identical. The question is if Ho these facts are a pure coincidence or if the diameter of the so-called inflated universe truly could be directly linked to the Hubble circumference? Further, we discuss some possible implications on suggested minimum acceleration models that, in this interpretation, seems to fit galaxy rotations well without relying on dark matter. In particular, the “recently” introduced quantized inertia model seems robust in its predictions under this perspective. Inside the uncertainty, we can find in the various measurements of the Hubble constant.

Presented evidence, that Black Hole is the hole. Namely, right behind the black surface (event horizon for non-rotational BH), there is no space nor time. No spacetime. Just as it would be prior to the Big Bang. The first composite image of the Black Hole from the Event Horizon Telescope is another evidence for that, with the resulting correction of the reported mass.

This essay shows modeling that - across four facets of physics - matches and predicts data. The facets are elementary particles, properties of elementary particles and other objects, cosmology, and astrophysics. Regarding elementary particles, our modeling matches all known particles and suggests new particles. New particles include zero-charge quark-like particles, a graviton, an inflaton, and other elementary particles. Some models split gravitational fields in ways similar to the splitting of electromagnetic fields into electric fields and magnetic fields. Regarding properties, our modeling suggests a new property - isomer. An isomer is a near copy of a set of most elementary particles. Our modeling includes a parameter that catalogs charge, mass, spin, and other properties. Regarding cosmology and astrophysics, the elementary particles and the new property seem to explain dark matter. Most dark matter has bases in five new isomers of the Standard Model elementary particles. More than eighty percent of dark matter is cold dark matter. Some dark matter has similarities to ordinary matter. Regarding cosmology, our modeling points to a basis for the size of recent increases in the rate of expansion of the universe. Our modeling suggests five eras in the evolution of the universe. Two eras would precede inflation. Regarding astrophysics, our modeling explains ratios of dark matter to ordinary matter. One ratio pertains to densities of the universe. Some ratios pertain to galaxy clusters. Some ratios pertain to galaxies. One ratio pertains to depletion of cosmic microwave background radiation. The modeling seems to offer insight about galaxy formation. That our work seems to explain cosmology data and astrophysics data might confirm some of our work regarding properties and elementary particles. Our modeling has roots in discrete mathematics. Our modeling unites itself and widely-used physics modeling.

Reduction of flow compressibility with the corresponding ideally invariant helicities, universally for various fluid models of neutral and ionized gases, can be argued statistically and associated with the geometrical scenario in the Taylor-Proudman theorem and its analogues. A `chiral base field', rooted in the generic intrinsic local structure, as well as an `equivalence principle' is explained and used to bridge the single-structure mechanics and the helical statistics. The electric field fluctuations may similarly be depressed by the (self-)helicities of the two-fluid plasma model, with the geometry lying in the relation between the electric and density fields in a Maxwell equation.

In the manuscript [1] we derived the general Doppler effect equations. In order to prove the correctness of the equations, it remains to define an adequate coordinate system. We have argued that such a coordinate system cannot be chosen arbitrarily but is determined by the direction between the receiver at the time when the signal is received and the sender at the time when the signal is emitted. In this manuscript, several experiments have been proposed to prove the existence of such a coordinate system. In addition, we will determine the velocities at which the sender and receiver of the signal move and the distance between them.

The motion in a Black Hole spacetime is studied. Several new results are found, in particular about the nature of Dark Matter and Dark Energy. The energy aspect of a matter in curved spacetime is explained. It is understandable why underground detectors for particles of Dark Matter have caught absolutely nothing for so many years of work. Usually, particles have a pretty strong effect on our world. But such small corpuscles as neutrinos have the weakest effect on ordinary matter. I give convincing arguments that Dark Matter acts so weakly on our world that its direct-contact action is equal to zero. That is why Dark Matter passes through the devices that are built for its capture completely without noticing them, completely without labor and friction with these devices. Such Dark Matter is representative for the INVISIBLE world, i.e. the detectors trying to detect it locally are ''blind'', they see nothing.

It is the severe scientific criticism against Hawking's life work. One of the issues is the following. The evaporation of the Black Holes is impossible at first because of Steven Hawking's sentence in his original paper that the Schwarzschild Black Hole does not evaporate. We have no other spherical symmetric Black Hole, which would have an event horizon, and what shrinks despite that.

There is a critical issue against Hawking Radiation: the ``Trans-Planckian problem'', dwelling on the fact that the laws of gravitation are unknown at short distances [Adam D.~Helfer, ``Do black holes radiate?'', Rep.\ Progr.\ Phys.\ 66 (6), 943--1008 (2003)]. In this short note, I demonstrate to have no Hawking Radiation from the static neutron star and the collapsing star (latter gradually becomes a Black Hole), therefore, one has no Information Loss Paradox [Sabine Hossenfelder (2020) ``The Black Hole Information Loss Problem is Unsolved. And Unsolvable'', https://youtu.be/mqLM3JYUByM].

The main idea of this article is simply calculating integer functions in module. The algebraic in the integer modules is studied in completely new style. By a careful construction, a result is proven that two finite numbers is with unequal logarithms in a corresponding module, and is applied to solving a kind of high degree diophantine equation.

The alignment of transverse vectors on the sky, such as the polarization directions of electromagnetic radiation from astronomical sources, can be an interesting property of the sources themselves or of the intervening medium between source and detector. For many regions of the Milky Way the alignment of the polarization directions of starlight is evident. However evident visually, it is useful to have a numerical alignment function that can be used to judge the significance of the correlations. The test described here evaluates the tendency for aligned directions to focus on points in the sky, as well as correlations in their avoidance of points in the sky. The formulas needed to conduct the test are derived and two illustrative examples are provided. In one sample from the Milky Way, the polarization directions from starlight are seen to converge far from the sample and, for another sample, a set of quasars with polarized radio emissions, the convergence occurs close to the sample.

Stellar Metamorphosis is the name given to a proposed alternative hypothesis for the origin and evolution of stars, planets, and all other celestial bodies. One of the most basic predictions of Stellar Metamorphosis is for the ages of celestial bodies. Since Stellar Metamorphosis rejects parts or even all knowledge of astronomical bodies as erroneous, this review focuses on internal checks of the hypothesis only. A number of internal inconsistencies are found. Contradictions in age results of up to 6,140% are found in Stellar Metamorphosis papers. Contradictions in Stellar Metamorphosis age measurement methods are also found, averaging 26,000% across all methods and surveyed objects.

In this paper I have used the Schwarzschild solution for Einstein’s field equation to find the change of proper time in a gravitational field with respect to time measured by gravitationally unaffected stationary clock. The equations tells us about the nature of temporal flow or temporal velocity for any body considering gravitational effect.I have further treated the solution to find a rate of change of the temporal velocity which signifies a temporal acceleration for any varying mass body. On the second phase I have used Einstein’s time dilation equation of special relativity to find the temporal flow of a particle moving with certain speed, neglecting the gravitational effect of the particle. Further calculations on the nature of temporal velocity reveals us a temporal acceleration for a particle with different velocities at different instant of time. I have also found equations relating to the nature of time in extreme cases of the universe like black holes and particles like photons.

In this introductory project, we have studied the about the neutron capture processes which are responsible for the abundances of heavy elements than iron in different phases of stellar evolution. Our main aim is to understand the distribution of isotropic abundances in our universe. First we start with the discussion on nucleosynthesis and its types, then we discussed about the different types of neutron capture processes. After that we provide results of the simulation which we have done using Monte Carlo method. Finally we conclude with the importance of these processes and current research status.

A close inspection of Zwicky's seminal papers on the dynamics of galaxy clusters reveals that the discrepancy discovered between the dynamical mass and the luminous mass of clusters has been widely overestimated in 1933 as a consequence of several factors, among which the excessive value of the Hubble constant $H_0$, then believed to be about seven times higher than today's average estimate. Taking account, in addition, of our present knowledge of classical dark matter inside galaxies, the contradiction can be reduced by a large factor. To explain the rather small remaining discrepancy of the order of 5, instead of appealing to a hypothetic exotic dark matter, the possibility of a inhomogeneous gravity is suggested. This is consistent with the ``cosmic tapestry" found in the eighties by De Lapparent and her co-authors, showing that the cosmos is highly inhomogeneous at large scale. A possible foundation for inhomogeneous gravitation is the universally discredited ancient theory of Fatio de Duillier and Lesage on pushing gravity, possibly revised to avoid the main criticisms which led to its oblivion. This model incidentally opens the window towards a completely non-standard representation of cosmos, and more basically calls to develop fundamental investigation to find the origin of the large scale inhomogeneity in the distribution of luminous matter.

There is hardly any mention in the broad literature of our observed knowledge about the ordered global motions taking place in our Galaxy and beyond, which require powerful re-ejections of the matter that steadily falls in from outside, at their innermost centers. These re-ejections can only be achieved by nuclear-burning of the strongly compressed hydrogen inside their central accretion disks. SMBHs cannot do it.

Penrose's intense cosmic censorship conjecture asserts that the Cauchy horizon inside the dynamically formed black hole is unstable to the remaining material eld that falls into the black hole. The physical importance of this conjecture stems from the fact that it provides the necessary conditions for general relativity to become truly deterministic gravity. In a recent paper by Hod, it provides a proof based on Beckenstein 's second law of generalized thermodynamics that conrms the validity of the interesting Penrose conjecture in the space-time of curved black holes. Recently, an article of mine obtained interesting results about the superradiant stability of Kerr black holes. The result contains some conclusions that violate the "no-hair theorem". We know that the phenomenon of black hole superradiation is a process of entropy reduction, and connecting Hod's paper with my paper, I found that the strong cosmic censorship conjecture may be violated.

Multiverses may provide the causal mechanism for gamma-ray bursts(GRBs). Assume that differing clock rates prevent interaction between universes in a multiverse. Gravitational time dilation in one universe may allow a temporarily connection to a slower universe. The formation and breaking of such a connection would produce neutrino emissions, gamma-ray emissions, and after-glow. This view derives from looking for a candidate that could connect universes; rather, than looking for an explanation of GRBs. email: rlmarker@spaceandmatter.org

By introducing concept of virtual terms as the pure mathematical insertions into the laws in nature, made by hand, the author tries to explain the Dark Matter anomaly.

n this paper, we will show that in addition to measuring annual and diurnal stellar aberration it is also possible directly to measure the angle of secular aberration caused by the motion of the solar system relative to other stars.In the manuscript [1] we dealt with this problem and gave a short description of a special telescope. Using such a telescope we would be able to measure the exact position of the cosmic objects and thus eliminate errors that occur due to the stellar aberration. Assuming that the tube of the telescope is filled with some optical medium [2], we will show that this does not significantly affect the measurement of the stellar aberration angle, but also that these differences are still large enough to enable us to determine the velocity at which the solar system moves relative to the other stars

The Millennium Prize problem is solved because inconsistency of Navier-Stokes fluid and the perfect fluid is found. In several examples, the inconsistency of known Physics of fluid is shown.

We show theory that spans tiny and vast aspects of physics. We suggest descriptions for new elementary particles, dark matter, and dark energy. We use those descriptions to explain data regarding dark matter effects, dark energy effects, and galaxy formation. Our mathematics-based modeling, descriptions, and explanations embrace and augment standard physics theory and modeling. One basis for our modeling is an extension to mathematics for harmonic oscillators.

Considered motion in Kerr-Newman, Kerr, and Reissner-Nordström spacetimes. As an example, in Kerr spacetime, if you release from rest-state an electrically neutral test-particle (from any position outside the Black Hole, but not at equatorial plane) it will end up in abrupt-end apart from the point of spacetime singularity. As solution to this problem the Dark Matter is used.

While the original Newton’s law of gravitation does not lead to the formula in question, the same law relative-velocity dependence completed does, briefly, with no hypothesis. Keywords: perihelion advance; interactions relative-velocity dependence.

We simulate artificial data for a sinusoid having a period P=1. Then we show that this period can be detected from a short Delta T = 0.3 slice of data. We proceed to show that the slice length is irrelevant for high quality measurements. The frustrating frequency resolution limit f_0=1/\Delta T of the power spectrum methods is pulverized. It is possible to predict the behaviour of non-linear periodic models.

The two problems in the title, concerning massive core galaxies, unexplained by the original gravity law of Newton, are normal features according to the same law Relative-Velocity Dependence completed,thus—among other hypotheses—the dark matter is no longer necessary. Keywords: spiral galaxy; rotation curve; dark matter; interactions relative-velocity dependence; gravitational refractive index; black captor/hole; atom radius.

We suggest descriptions for new elementary particles, dark matter, and dark energy. We use those descriptions to explain data regarding dark matter effects, dark energy effects, and galaxy formation. Our mathematics-based modeling, descriptions, and explanations embrace and augment traditional physics theory modeling.

We suggest descriptions for new elementary particles, dark matter, and dark energy. We use those descriptions to explain data regarding dark matter effects, dark energy effects, and galaxy evolution. We use mathematics-based modeling that can feature objects and de-emphasize motion. The modeling, descriptions, and explanations embrace and augment traditional physics theory modeling.

We suggest descriptions for new elementary particles, dark matter, and dark energy. We use those descriptions to explain data regarding dark matter effects, dark energy effects, and galaxy evolution. We use mathematics-based models that feature objects and, originally, de-emphasize motion. The models, descriptions, and explanations add to traditional physics, provide clarity regarding aspects of nature for which people point to possible inadequacies in traditional physics models, and embrace traditional physics models in realms for which people have validated traditional physics models.

In this paper I categorize and analyze the `constant Lagrangian' model fits I made of the complete SPARC database of 175 LTG galaxies. The difference with the previous papers is the application of the RMWRSS (Root Mean Weighted Residual Sum of Squares) method to quantify the quality of the fit, using a continuous curve. Of the 175 galaxies, 77 allowed a single fit rotation curve, so about 44 percent. Another 18 galaxies could almost be plotted on a single fit. Then 13 galaxies could be fitted really nice on crossing dual curves. The reason for the appearance of this dual curve, in its two versions, could be given and related to the galactic constitution and dynamics. From then on, the fitting got more and more complex. So I got a 44 percent positive rate for a direct fit of the measured rotation curves on the prime model. This result rules out stochastic coincidence as an explanation of those fits.

A new cosmological model is presented, which derives from a new physics within a theory of everything. It introduces, beyond radiation and baryonic matter, a unique and new ingredient, which is the substance of the universe, and which can be assimilated to the cold dark matter of the standard cosmology. The new model, although profoundly different from the ΛCDM model, exhibits the same metric and an almost identical distance scale. So it shares the same chronology and the same theory of nucleosynthesis, but solves the problem of the horizon, the flatness of space and the homogeneity of the distribution of matter in a natural way, without having to resort to an additional theory like that of inflation and without dark energy. Eventually it resolves the tension between the direct and the inverse cosmic distance ladder.

The Unified Electro-Gravity (UEG) theory is applied to model gravitational effects of an individual star or a binary-star system, including that of the sun which is the only star of our solar system. The basic UEG theory was originally developed to model elementary particles, as a substitute for the standard model of particle physics. The UEG theory is extended in this paper (a) to model the gravitational force due to light radiation from an individual star, which determines its energy output due to nuclear fusion in the star, as well as (b) to model the gravitational force between two nearby stars, which determines the orbital dynamics in a binary-star system. The mass-luminosity relation (MLR) derived separately from each of the above two models are compared and studied together with the MLR currently available from measured orbital data for binary stars, as well as from an existing energy-source model for stellar nuclear fusion (Eddington's model). The current MLR data uses conventional Newtonian gravity, where the gravitational force is produced only due to the gravitational mass of the star, which is assumed to be equal to the inertial mass as per the principle of equivalence. This Newtonian gravitational model is modified by including the new UEG effect due to the light radiation of a star, in order to establish the actual MLR which can be significantly different from the currently available MLR. The new UEG theory is applied to an individual isolated star (for modeling the force for stellar nuclear fusion), which is spherically symmetric about its own center, in a fundamentally different manner from its application to a binary-star system (for modeling orbital motion of a binary-star), which is not a spherically-symmetric structure.

The unified electro-gravity (UEG) theory, which has been successfully used for modeling elementary particles, as well as single and binary stars, is extended in this paper to model gravitation in spiral galaxies. A new UEG model would explain the ``flat rotation curves'' commonly observed in the spiral galaxies. The UEG theory is developed in a fundamentally different manner for a spiral galaxy, as compared to prior applications of the UEG theory to the elementary particle and single stars. This is because the spiral galaxy, unlike the elementary particles or single stars, is not spherically symmetric. The UEG constant $\gamma$, required in the new model to support the galaxies' flat rotation speeds, is estimated using measured data from a galaxy survey, as well as for a selected galaxy for illustration. The estimates are compared with the $\gamma$ derived from a UEG model of elementary particles. The UEG model for the galaxy is shown to explain the empirical Tuly-Fisher Relationship (TFR), is consistent with the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), and is also independently supported by measured trends of galaxy thickness with surface brightness and rotation speed.

The Unified Electro-Gravity (UEG) theory is extended for the unique conditions of cosmology, which may support a possible reversal of the current expansionary phase of the universe, explain the current accelerated expansion of the universe without need for any dark energy, and also explain the signatures of the baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and in the correlation function of galaxy distribution, without any dark matter. UEG effects due to the the CMB radiation in the recent universe, and in the ionized environment before recombination, as well as those due to anticipated star lights in the future universe, are modeled with suitable cosmological assumptions. This may provide a new theoretical paradigm, which can potentially answer some of the most fundamental questions in cosmology today.

In this research, we introduce two natural telescope for detecting events of extra dimensions. First, we will show that missing genes which are needed for keepping the animals alive, could be existed in extra dimensions. These genes could act like the receiver or sender of radio waves and transmit information from extra dimensions into our universe. These genes could lead to some changes in radiated waves of egg cells and missing some electrons. Thus, by considering evolutions of egg cells, we can obtain some information about biological events interior of extra dimensions. For example, if we put a fertilized egg and a non-fertilized egg interior of an inductor and produce a magnetic field, we can observe that non-fertilized egg obtains some properties of fertilized egg. It seems that sperms are teleported via extra dimensions into non-fertilized eggs. However, this system can only send us a report of biological events and for considering cosmological events, we need to a bigger object. We show that earth has a system similar to the DNAs in egg cell however with the cosmological size and can communicate with objects in extra dimensions. This DNA-like shell is located interior of the earth's core and leads to the emergence of high temperature. Exchanging information between the earth's DNA like shell and objects in extra dimensions leads to the production of some extra matters around the core, unstability interior of the earth's layers and the emergence of some earthquakes. Also, DNA-like object interior of the core has a direct effect on the water, ions and charged particles around the earth. In fact, this object induced some properties into water in clouds via extra dimensions and for this reason, water of rain is very different from normal water. For example, water of rain can communicate with DNA of plants very better of other waters.

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are, as the name implies, short and intense pulses of radiation at wavelengths of roughly one metre. FRBs have extremely high brightness temperatures, which points to a coherent source of radiation. The energy of a single burst ranges from $10^{36}$ to $10^{39}$ erg. At the high end of the energy range, FRBs have enough energy to unbind an earth-sized planet, and even at the low end, there is enough energy to vaporise and unbind the atmosphere and the oceans. We therefore propose that FRBs are signatures of an artificial terraformer, capable of eradicating life on another planet, or even destroy the planet entirely. The necessary energy can be harvested from Wolf-Rayet stars with a Dyson sphere ($\sim 10^{38}$ erg s$^{-1}$) , and the radiation can be readily produced by astrophysical masers. We refer to this mechanism as Volatile Amplification of a Destructive Emission of Radiation (VADER). We use the observational information to constrain the properties of the apparatus. We speculate that the non-repeating FRBs are low-energy pulses used to exterminate life on a single planet, but leaving it otherwise intact, and that the stronger repeating FRB is part of an effort to destroy multiple objects in the same solar system, perhaps as a preventative measure against panspermia. In this picture, the persistent synchrotron source associated with the first repeating FRB arises from the energy harvesting process. Finally we propose that Oumuamua might have resulted from a destruction of a planet in this manner.

Henceforth the fact is admitted as an axiom that all bodies in the universe set up gravitationally the universal optical medium, named gravitational ether, whose strength—from which we derive its index of refraction—is the sum of all relative-velocity dependent gravitational potentials, hence both nonuniform in space and changing in time as bodies move. Besides, Einstein’s E = mc 2 is of gravitational cosmological nature, including pure Newtonian.

We herein present a proof of the existence and smoothness of the Navier-Stokes equations via a new method of manipulating Calabi-Yau manifolds, which in turn leads us to a disproof by contradiction of the Collatz conjecture; four separate, independent proofs of the Jacobian conjecture; a complete decipherment of Linear A; a method of determining whether or not a book is worth reading based on its cover alone; and an entire new field of mathematics which we hereby name ”Weird Calculus”. We completely and utterly fail to present any convincing arguments, but at least there’s some nice text art. We make no attempt to clarify anything in the field. Astute readers may notice the complete lack of content and coherence in this paper.

We suggest united models and specific predictions regarding elementary particles, dark matter, aspects of galaxy evolution, dark energy, and aspects of the cosmology timeline. Results include specific predictions for new elementary particles and specific descriptions of dark matter and dark energy. Some of our modeling matches known elementary particles and extrapolates to predict other elementary particles, including bases for dark matter. Some modeling explains observed ratios of effects of dark matter to effects of ordinary matter. Some models suggest aspects of galaxy formation and evolution. Some modeling correlates with eras of increases or decreases in the observed rate of expansion of the universe. Our modeling framework features mathematics for isotropic quantum harmonic oscillators and provides a framework for creating and unifying physics theories. Aspects of our approach emphasize existence of elementary particles and de-emphasize motion. Some of our models complement traditional quantum field theory and, for example, traditional calculations of anomalous magnetic dipole moments.

This paper construct a model to evaluate the hypothesis that the in- compatibility between General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics is due to the different space-time geometries upon which each respective theory was built. The model is then applied to an unexplained phenomena observed in the decay rate of unstable nuclei, whose decay rate has superimposed on them oscillations that match the yearly cycle of the Earth’s orbit. The gravity-quantum connection model will show that gravitation is likely the ”unknown field” responsible for the nu- clear decay oscillations.

An approximate, time-delayed imaging algorithm is implemented, within exist- ing line-of-sight code. The resulting program acts on hydrocode output data, producing synthetic images, depicting what a model relativistic astrophysical jet looks like to a stationary observer. As part of a suite of imaging and simula- tion tools, the software is able to visualize a variety of dynamical astrophysical phenomena. A number of tests are performed, in order to confirm code integrity, and to present features of the software. The above demonstrate the potential of the computer program to help interpret astrophysical jet observations.

Usual explanations of spiral galaxy rotation curves assume circular orbits of stars. The consequences of giving up this assumption were investigated through a couple of models in an earlier communication. Here, further investigations of one of these models (the spinner model) shows that it can explain the formation of the spiral arms as well. It is also shown that the behavior of the tail of the rotation curve is related to the age of the galaxy. The spinner model conjectures the existence of a spinning hot disk around a spherical galactic core. The disk is held together by local gravity and electromagnetic scattering forces. However, it disintegrates at the edge producing fragments that form stars. Once separated from the disk, the stars experience only the centrally directed gravitational force due to the massive core and remaining disk. A numerical simulation shows that a high enough angular velocity of the disk produces hyperbolic stellar trajectories that agree with the observed rotation curves. Besides the rotation curves, the simulation generates two other observable features of spiral galaxies. First, it shows the formation of spiral arms and their nearly equal angular separations. Second, it determines that, for large radial distances, younger galaxies have rotation curves that dip downwards and older galaxies have a rising trend. The strength of this model lies in the fact that it does not require the postulation of dark matter or MOND. This model also revisits the method of estimation of star age. As the stars are formed from an already hot disk, they do not start off as cold collections of dust and gas. Hence, their ages are expected to be significantly less than what current models estimate. This explains why they have not escaped the galaxy in spite of their hyperbolic trajectories.

This paper seeks to explain three solar puzzles - namely - (1) Solar Neutrino Problem, (2) Coronal Temperature Problem, and (3) Ion and electron teperature discrepancy. It considers a hypertoroidal cosmological model, in which space time have the toplogy $S^3 \times S^1$ - which have also been explored by Segal and Guillemin. The retarded fluxes, emanating from the sun, interact with the advanced fluxe returning to their origin - provide solution.

Findings show that the rays of star light are lensed primarily in the plasma rim of the sun and hardly in the vacuum space just slightly above the rim. Since the lower boundary of this vacuum space is only a fraction of a solar radius above the solar plasma rim, it is exposed to virtually the same gravitational field. The thin plasma atmosphere of the sun appears to represent an indirect interaction involving an interfering plasma medium between the gravitational field of the sun and the rays of star light. The very same light bending equation obtained by General Relativity was derived from classical assumptions of a minimum energy path of a light ray in the plasma rim, exposed to the gravitational gradient field of the sun. The resulting calculation was found to be independent of frequency. An intense search of the star filled skies reveals a clear lack of lensing among the countless numbers of stars, where there are many candidates for gravitational lensing according to the assumptions of General Relativity. Assuming the validity of the light bending rule of General Relativity, the sky should be filled with images of Einstein rings. Moreover, a lack of evidence for gravitational lensing is clearly revealed in the time resolved images of the rapidly moving stellar objects orbiting about Sagittarius A*. Subject headings: black hole – gravitational lensing – galaxy center – plasma atmosphere – Gauss’s law

Some authors have pointed out that the observed spectrum of long-lived solar horizontal velocity shows only a single peak at wavelength ≃35 Mm, ‘supergranulation’. However the corresponding verticalvelocity spectrum looks very different with power shifted to higher wavenumber in a broad divided peak representing a range of plume sizes or half wavelengths from 4–12 Mm, i.e. ‘mesogranulation’. Vertical-velocity spectra derived from the Hathaway et al. (2000) SOHO-MDI 62 day full-disk Dopplervelocity spectrum and based upon the Koutchmy (1994) granulation intensity spectrum show expected Kolmogorov-inertial and eddy-noise power-law wavenumber subranges, giving evidence for energy injection into the vertical flow around three coherent length scales &1.01, 5.4, and 10.5 Mm, i.e. granulation, and ‘mesogranular’ and ‘supergranular’ subsurface counterparts. The three energy-injection scales correspond reasonably to interior-model convective mixing lengths for H I, He I, and He II 50% ionization depths, respectively. The two larger scales are nearly one-to-two also suggestive of a possible resonant overtone structure. The horizontal supergranulation flow seems evident as a distinct scale of eddy noise without energy injection around wavelength 45.3 Mm, consistent with the first subharmonic of the supergranular subsurface counterpart.

The discovery of exoplanets and possible future detection of exomoons led to the question if any relationship holds between the mass of its host star and mass of its planets. That is, if the mass of planets is constrained by the final mass of the hosting star. If relationship such as this exists, then several key questions can be answered. First of all, based on the mass of the star, what is the upper limit mass budget available for the creation of terrestrial planets. Secondly, if we know the mass budget availability, then what is the upper limit of the mass budget for the water in the system. Thirdly, finding the probability of the formation of exomoons with sizes comparable to earth around Jovian planets. Fourthly, explaining the rare occurrence of Jupiter sized planets around red dwarf systems.

<html> The phenomenon of the residual, so far unexplained annual and diurnal tracking signal variations on top of the constant acceleration term <em>Anderson & Laing & Lau & et al. (2002)</em>, is resolved by applying the general, classical Doppler formula (CMB-Doppler formula) of first order for two-way radio Doppler signals in the fundamental rest frame of the isotropic cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) between earthbound Deep Space Network stations (DSN), and the Pioneer 10 space probe (P 10). The anomalous annual and diurnal variations of the constant acceleration term vanish, if instead of the relativistic Standard-Doppler formula (SRT-Doppler formula) of first and second order the CMB-Doppler formula is used. That formula contains the absolute velocities <b>u</b>_e of Earth, and <b>u</b>_pio of P 10, derived from the absolute velocity <b>u</b>_sun of the solar system barycenter in the CMB, with <em>u_sun</em> = 369.0 ± 0.9 km/s, and the relative revolution velocity <b>v</b>_e of Earth, and the relative velocity <b>v</b>_pio of P 10 in the heliocentric frame from January 1987 until December 1996. The flyby radio Doppler and the proportional ranging data anomalies can be resolved as well by using the CMB-Doppler formula with the absolute, asymptotic velocities of the inbound and outbound flights during a gravity assist maneuver, which have usually slightly different magnitudes, inducing the so far unexplained frequency shift, and the unexplained difference in the ranging data, although the relative velocities are equal. </html>

Application of the virial theorem, when combined with results from the kinetic theory of gases, has been linked to gravitational collapse when the mass of the resulting assembly is greater than the Jeans mass, MJ. While the arguments appear straightforward, the incorporation of temperature into these equations, using kinetic theory, results in a conflict with the laws of thermodynamics. Temperature must always be viewed as an intensive property. However, it is readily demonstrated that this condition is violated when the gravitational collapse of a free gas is considered using these approaches. The result implies star formation cannot be based on the collapse of a self-gravitating gaseous mass.

In my opinion, the problem of the galaxy rotation curves can be solved on the basis of the combined and competing principles of space expansion and energy conservation on the one hand and gravitational contraction and the virial theorem on the other hand. Thus far it has been assumed that the existence of galaxies is proof of the dominance of gravitational contraction in galaxies. In this paper I present arguments in favor of my conviction that this assumption is wrong and that space expansion is one of the two dominating and competing principles active in galaxies. I propose to reset, rethink and rescale the presupposed boarder between Newtonian gravitational contraction and Hubble space expansion. This effectively identifies Dark Matter attributed effects in galaxies as Dark Energy manifestations.

In this paper I categorize and analyze the `constant Lagrangian' model fits I made of the complete SPARC database of 175 LTG galaxies. Of the 175 galaxies, 45 allowed a single fit rotation curve, so about 26 percent. Another 2 galaxies could almost be plotted on a single fit. Then 36 galaxies could be fitted really nice on crossing dual curves. The reason for the appearance of this dual curve, in its two versions, could be given and related to the galactic constitution and dynamics. Another 25 galaxies could be fitted on parallel transition dual curves. This appearance could also be related to galactic dynamics and galactic mass distribution. Then there were the 19 multiple fit, complex extended galaxies, the complexities of which could be analyzed on the basis of the 4 types of dual fits. In total 128 of the 175 galaxies could be fitted and analyzed very well to reasonably well within the error margins. That is a 73 percent positive rate. This result rules out stochastic coincidence as an explanation of those fits. In my opinion, the success of the `constant Lagrangian' approach indicates that the problem of the galaxy rotation curves, perceived as a virial theorem problem, can be solved solely on the basis of the Lagrangian formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, when applied to this domain existing in between Newton's and Einstein's theories of gravity.

In this paper I apply the `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic dynamics to the complete SPARC database of 175 galaxies. For twenty five percent, 43 out of 175, of the galaxies of the series, a single fit model already remains nicely within the error margins. Fifteen galaxies are more complicated and clearly need a threefold fit. One exceptional galaxy justified five fits. So 116 galaxies, 66 percent, have a dual fit. The multiple fit appears to follow the mass composition of galaxies as composed of a bulge, possibly a disk and mostly extended gas clouds. As in previous papers, I will first repeat a presentation of the `constant Lagrangian' approach. The original part of this paper is the fit of the complete set of the SPARC database and a first categorization of the result in single, dual, triple or multiple fit galaxies. Through the extensive database fit, the `constant Lagrangian' approach can be inverted from a deductive to an inductive result: huge stretches of all galaxies can be fitted on a constant Lagrangian curve, while remaining within the empirical margin of errors. This paper's galaxy fits prove this restricted claim beyond doubt. The issue then becomes to explain this empirical, inductive result.

By the unified theory of dynamic space has been there a forecast of the follow observation that, parallel moving photons of different frequency, reduce locally the cohesive pressure of space, resulting to move with different speeds. So, the photons with higher frequency slow down against parallel moving photons with lower frequency, as on delay in gamma rays from galaxy Markarian 501 was observed. This observation proves that space contains unseen forces, which are evident as deformations of space, such as in the above theory are described. Accordingly, for the great problem of Physics and Philosophy, "What is the space?", there is the answer-solution: "The dynamic space".

In this paper I apply the `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic dynamics to the F-series of the SPARC database. I will fit the experimental rotation curves of the $16$ `F' galaxies from this database using the dual fit approach. This means that one fit is made for the stars dominated region of one galaxy. Another fit is added for the gas dominated region of the same galaxy. The dual fit approach results in a rotation curve fit that mostly remains within the observational error margins. For some galaxies of the series a single model already remains nicely within the error margins and then doesn't really justify a dual fit. Some galaxies are more complicated and problably need a threefold fit. This dual fit approach follows the mass composition of galaxies as composed of a bulge, possibly a disk and mostly extended gas clouds.

In this paper I apply the `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic dynamics to a subset of the SPARC database. I will fit $25$ galaxies from this database using the dual fit approach. This means that one fit is made for the stars dominated region of one galaxy. Another fit is added for the gas dominated region of the same galaxy. Both are presented in one single graph. The switch from stars dominated to gas dominated is sometimes visible as a ``wiggle'' in the total rotation velocity, as for exampe in the rotation curve of NGC 1560. I will demonstrate that this more or less visible``wiggle'' is part of the rotation velocity curve of almost every galaxy in the sample. The dual fit approach results in a rotation curve fit that mostly remains within the observational error margins.

In the unified theory of dynamic space the phenomenon of motion has been described as a form of space deformation, that is identical to time. The motion force is deducted from the dynamic space and is accumulated on the spherical zone of the particle, due to the difference of cohesive pressure in front of and behind it. Cosmic journey of galaxies becomes at a Universal constant timeless speed. Also, timeless speed of light is a Universal constant, while light speed c is a local constant. The gravity tail of galactic systems is one of moreover causes for their chaotic motion. So, the search for an unknown form of dark matter and energy is no longer necessary.

The velocity rotation curves of the SPARC database present an opportunity to test the `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic dynamics. The fits of the rotation curves from thirteen different galaxies are presented.

The velocity rotation curve of NGC 1560 has a peculiar wiggle around 4.5 kpc. This makes it a favorable galaxy to test the diverse models trying to explain galactic dynamics, as for example CDM and MOND. I will fit NGC 1560 using the GR-Schwarzschild based `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic dynamics and compare it to other results. But first I will give a brief expose of the `constant Lagrangian' approach. At the end, I present same other fitting curves: those of galaxies F583-1, F579V1 and U11648.

I start with a historical note on the galactic rotation curves issue. The problem with the virial theorem in observed galactic dynamics, lead to the Dark Matter hypothesis but also to Modified Newtonian Dynamics or MOND. Then I move (away) from MOND towards a relativistic, Lagrangian approach of orbital dynamics in a curved Schwarzschild metric. I propose a `constant Lagrangian' model for galactic scale geodetic dynamics. I will show with four rotation fitting curves to what extend my proposed model galaxies `constant Lagrangian' postulate works in these limited number of situations. The fitted galaxies are NGC 2403, NGC 3198, UGC 6614 and F571-8. In the paper I present a theoretical context in which the `constant Lagrangian' postulate might replace the classical virial theorem on a galactic scale. But the proposed postulate isn't a `general law of nature' because in the solar system and in the GNSS relativistic context, the classical virial theorem is proven accurate. Due to the limitations of the proposed postulate, a statement regarding Dark Matter can't be made. But the model might achieve within the GR-Schwarzschild paradigm what MOND achieves within the Newtonian paradigm, fitting the experimental galactic rotation curves.

There has been an old and false claims in the scientific community related to negative mass. This paper describes the vacuum instability problem, runaway motion problem, and wheel problem with negative mass and positive mass. Negative mass is an object whose existence is required by the law of the conservation of energy. The fundamental properties of negative mass can explain important characteristics of dark matter. 1) additional centripetal force effects, 2) explanations derived from fundamental principles about the reason why dark matter does not have electromagnetic interaction, 3) repulsive gravity ensuring almost even distribution and lower interaction of dark matter, 4) gravitational lens effect, 5) accelerating expansion of the universe can be explained with negative mass. Therefore, we should seriously examine the negative mass model.

Observations of the rotational curves of galaxies, gravitational lensing of galaxy clusters, and of temperature and polarization anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background have previously been interpreted as evidence for the gravitational signatures of a non-baryonic component of matter. Disturbingly, this invisible substance, known as "dark matter", makes up about 26.8 % of the entire mass-energy budget of the Universe. It has long been thought that it is in the very nature of dark matter to be invisible. Here we report the first successful direct imaging of dark matter. This discovery, which has been achieved through the use of alternative facts, is the greatest discovery ever. Period.

The text lists Java programs which convert star catalogs to the format of the XEphem visualiser. The currently supported input catalog formats are (i) the data base of the orbital elements of the Minor Planet Center (MPC) of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), (ii) the data base of the Hipparcos main catalog or the variants of the Tycho-1 or Tycho-2 catalogs, (iii) the systems in the Washington Double Star catalog, (iv) the Proper Motions North and South catalogs, (v) the SKY2000 catalog, (vi) the 2MASS catalog, (vii) the Third Reference Catalog of Bright Galaxies (RC3), (viii) the General Catalogue of Variable Stars (GCVS v. 5). (ix) the Naval Observatory CCD Astrograph Catalog (UCAC4). [viXra:1802.0035]

Inspired by the continued success of MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) in the prediction of galactic rotation curves, an attempt to derive the deep-MOND equation from known mechanics has resulted in a third explanation apart from MOND and dark matter. It is proposed that particle velocities follow the relation v = √(GM)r ^-1/2+ √(a_x)r^1/2, where a_x is a scalar accelerating field that is independent of mass. This yields the following relation for centripetal acceleration: a = (GM)r^-2+ 2√(a_xGM)r^-1+ a_x, which, at large radii, is nearly identical to the deep-MOND equation a = √(a₀GM)r^-1. When applied to a handful of galaxies, the velocity equation prefers an a_x on the order of 10^-14 (km s^-2), which gives a good fit of velocity curves to observed values. It is posited that scalar field a_x is a result of local galactic expansion, such that a_x = cH_g, where H_g is the rate of expansion. For the Milky Way, it is estimated that H_g ≈ 9.3 E-4 (km s^-1 kpc^-1). This rate would predict an increase of the astronomical unit of 14 (cm yr^-1), which compares well with the recently reported measurement of 15 ±4 (cm yr^-1).

Applying the general, classical Doppler formula (CMB-Doppler formula) of first order for two-way radio Doppler signals in the fundamental rest frame of the isotropic cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) between earthbound Deep Space Network stations (DSN), and the Pioneer 10 space probe (P 10) resolves the phenomenon of the residual, so far unexplained annual and diurnal signal variations on top of the constant acceleration term <i>Anderson & Laing & Lau & et al. (2002), Anderson & Campbell & Ekelund & et al. (2008)</i>. The anomalous annual and diurnal variations of the acceleration term vanish, if instead of the relativistic Standard-Doppler formula (SRT-Doppler formula) of first and second order the CMB-Doppler formula is used. That formula contains the absolute velocities u_e of Earth, and u_pio of P 10, derived from the absolute velocity u_sun of the solar system barycenter in the CMB, with u_sun = 369.0 ± 0.9 km/s, and the relative revolution velocity v_e of Earth, and the relative velocity v_pio of P 10 in the heliocentric frame from January 1987 until December 1996. The flyby radio Doppler and ranging data anomalies can be resolved as well by using the CMB-Doppler formula with the absolute, asymptotic velocities of the inbound and outbound maneuver flights, which have usually slightly different magnitudes, inducing the so far unexplained frequency shift, and the unexplained difference in the ranging data.

<p>Space is everywhere with us. It's in our hands. However, it's impossible to bent, stretch, compress, or doing anything with it. Expansion of the space would intertwine with many paradoxes that is beyond comprehension. We have learned to manipulating matter and energy since our first existence on Earth, however, never space.</p> <p>Additionally, space can not have boundary. Otherwise, it would separate space from something else outside of the space. Neither the boundary or surface of the space nor the outside of the space can be defined as anything other than space. Hence, space, boundary of space, and the outside can only be <i><b>space</b></i>. Thus, the shape, size, surface, and boundary of the space can not be detected or measured. Neither the age of the space can be measured. Space and the universe can only be considered infinite.</p> <p>Logically, we can not detect vacuum, or emptiness. We can only detect the absence of detectable. Absence of detectable is not absolutely equal to emptiness. The same logics that we can only prove the absence of detectable matter and energy. It is impossible to prove the absence of space. The question is, how can you bend or expand infinite and undetectable space that has no surface and boundary?</p>

Gravity is not force of attraction. An one way concentrative potential is created by head-on congregation of particles from gentle pairing to high speed collision. It can be started by electromagnetic attraction or disturbance in the environment internally or externally. A terrestrial planet, for example, is the coalition of elements. It grows in the process of construction. The coalition builds the body and the force of keeping it together, gravity.

To me, the gravity of super-sized planet can trigger global nuclear reactions and become a star. The expelled particles embrace objects in it's path and create a space cyclone, solar system. Our Solar System is a cyclone powered by the vortex force of a single dominating star, the Sun, in weightless space. The Sun regulates the orbits and reduces the collision of all plants and alike within it's reach. The question is, would it be second star if Jupiter got a chance to gather more mass?

To me, a star is analogous to a constant and all directional nuclear exploding jet engine. Expelling particles would create it's opposite imploding force. By squeezing mass and energy into single point, I don't see other action can create stronger concentrative mass and force than implosive compression. Under this constant compression, a star can reach it's limit of structure and go supernova. The surface activities would radiate the frequency beyond our detection, a black hole disappeared from our view. Massive black hole can create its' own super space cyclone. Other subsystems can be caught by the storm and form a galaxy, a superset collection of solar and planetary systems by nature's inheritance and self-similarity. Considering nature's capability of creating such varieties of microorganism; Planets, stars, galaxies, and alike will continue to surprise us with our slowly opening eyes. Yet, the universe can only be seen by anyone in very short blink.

Doppler redshift of radiations is dominating in all observations. And, path loss of frequency causes exponentially proportional redshift. Radiation, over space, can continue to stretch below visual and infrared detection, the source would merged into the background (CBR). In the meantime, space is filled with dominating low frequency below visible radiations which can come from outside of the visible universe.

The question are: Will we ever know if there are objects outside of the detectable universe radiating in wave length longer than CBR? Can we date fundamental particles, or space? We only measure the universe with visual radiations. Doesn't it seem that the size and age of the universe is determined by the size of our telescope?

Big-bang and universe expansion are illusions of cosmic redshift. Doppler redshift is over 92% dominating. And, path loss of frequency causes exponentially proportional redshift. The expansion of the universe is defined by it's boundary, not the separation galaxies. The fundamentals of redshift and space are examined.

Many incomprehensible paradoxes are created by dark matter and dark energy. Physical matter, dark or not, has to occupy space and prevent other matter from taking the same location. On the other hand, isn't it meaningless if dark matter and dark energy can occupy the same space of ordinary matter and energy without interactions?

<p>Gravitational acceleration is independent of composition, shape, size, surface, and distance by falling body experiments.</p> <p>On the other hand, attraction acceleration is dependent on it's mass and composition (shape, size, surface, and distance are distribution of mass, or function of mass and distance).</p> <p>Therefore,<i><b>gravity is not attraction</b></i>.</p>

We have learned to manipulating matter and energy since our first existence, however, never space. Luckily, there is vacuum sharing some properties of space. We can create and shape vacuum to some extent. The experiment observes the interactions of vacuum, mass and energy to derive a logical understanding of space.

The problem of gravitational potential energy is analyzed within a simple model, in which the 3-dimensional (3D) space is a curved hypersurface of a 4-dimensional (4D) Euclidean space. The analysis shows that the effect of gravitational potential energy deficit is present in the model. For a particular profile of hypersurface representing 3D space, the effects of aforementioned deficit are similar to effects attributed to dark matter, while not being contrary to Newton's law of gravity.

The hypothesis is presented that pulsar-time is geodetic precession rotation time, in both the causal sense and the quantitative sense (T-pulsar exactly equals T-geodetic). The causal sense implies the hypothesis that, in the outer crust of the neutron star, the curvature of the metric favors alignment of elementary particle magnetic moments along the geodetic precession. A consequence of this hypothesis is the partial decoupling of pulsar time and orbital rotation time. For a ``canonical'' neutron star, with 1.4 solar mass and a radius of 10 km, this implies that T-orbit equals approximately one fifth of T-pulsar. The pulsar time as being geodetic precession time explains the extreme stability of pulsar frequencies, despite strong magnetic turbulences. It also quite naturally explains the tilted axis of the neutron stars magnetic moment relative to its orbital axis. The hypothesis is formulated within the environment of the Ehlers-Pirani-Schild Weyl Space Free Fall Grid approach as developed in two previous papers, but it should be theory independent and thus be derivable in GR-Schwarzschild as well.

Based on the quantum modification of the general relativity (Qmoger), it is shown, that the Vacuum is continuously feeding the universe with ultralight particles (vacumo). Vacumos are transforming into more heavy (but still ultralight) gravitons, which form quantum condensate even for high temperature. The condensate, under gravitational pressure in galaxies, produces and expels from the hot places the first generation of "ordinary" massive fermions, with are identified with neutrinos. It explains the stability of all three neutrinos, which was a puzzle in the Standard Model. The mass of neutrino, estimated in terms of a new scaling in Qmoger, satisfies the experimental bound. The oscillations of neutrino are explained in terms of interaction with the background condensate of gravitons. The electric dipole moment of neutrino is also estimated. The situation with neutrinos is an example of interface between dark and ordinary matter (Idom), introduced before in explanation of the phenomena of subjectivity.

Based on the quantum modification of the general relativity (Qmoger), it is shown, that the Vacuum is continuously feeding the universe with ultralight particles (vacumo). Vacumos are transforming into more heavy (but still ultralight) gravitons, which form quantum condensate even for high temperature. The condensate, under gravitational pressure in galaxies, produces the first generation of "ordinary" massive particles, with are identified with neutrinos. The estimated in this theory mass of neutrino satisfies the experimental bound. The oscillations of neutrino are explained in terms of interaction with the background condensate of gravitons. The electric dipole moment of neutrino is estimated. A connection of this theory with the Standard Model is discussed.

I report the result of the cyclic universe theory and connect it to the origin of science and God showing some discussions about the cyclic model and the string theory, the cyclic model and the cosmological constant. And discussing the equation of Albert Einstein of the relation between mass and energy.

From the quantum modification of general relativity (Qmoger), supported by cosmic data (without fitting), a new quantum scaling is derived. This scaling indicates a mechanism of formation new particles from the background matter. Based on this scaling, mass of neutrino is estimated in agreement with experimental bounds. The neutrino oscillations are explained in terms of interaction with the background quantum condensate of gravitons. Subjective experiences (qualia) and functioning of living cell are also connected with the background condensate.

This paper overviews my hypothesis of the ultimate fate of the universe, showing how it will reach the heat death, and how the dark energy has the main role in the universe movement and even it's end, this paper opens a new path in the searching about the nature of dark energy, by knowing that it's the reason why the universe is expanding, cooling and losing energy. And to note that in this paper we based on that the universe is closed.

In this paper I examine the claim that the orbits of planets can be explained by nothing more than the electricity and magnetism. For the "overdensity claim," I find that the surface charge densities required to account for observations of the orbits of planets in our own Solar System are not physical. For the "dipole claim," I find that the electric field from the Sun is negligibly small, causing a central force that is 75 orders of magnitude too small to account for the motion of the Earth. These models cannot explain planetary orbits.

This paper overviewing the answer to a reasonable question to wonder what the shape of the Universe is. Is it a sphere? A torus? Is it open or closed, or flat? And what does that all mean anyway? Is it doubly curved like a western saddle? What can determine the entire fate of the Universe. Does the Universe go on forever? If not is there some kind of giant brick wall at the edge of the Universe? As it turns out, the answer is both simpler and weirder than all those options. What does the Universe look like is a question we love to guess at as a species and make up all kinds of nonsense.

Context. This paper suggests a hypothesis that the world is a simulation of a digital world done by a creator who is the ruler of the highest civilization. As this creator can control the cosmic distances and so he used his science and arts in a simulation called life, this life is based upon the creator strategies and those strategies are simple as your computer, you turn on your computer so the life began, but in the highest civilization computer there is no shut down, but a timer set according to the highest civilization order.It's because we are controlled by a higher civilization that we cannot go beyond them because they are at a higher dimension than ours, and mostly they are at the highest dimension that can get over all the dimensions of the hyperspace, Science is a dynamic process of questioning, hypothesizing, discovering, and changing previous ideas based on what is learned. Scientific ideas are developed through reasoning and tested against observations. Scientists assess and question each other's work in a critical process called peer review. Our understanding about the universe and our place in it has changed over time. New information can cause us to rethink what we know and reevaluate how we classify objects in order to better understand them. New ideas and perspectives can come from questioning a theory or seeing where a classification breaks down Aims. The aim of this paper is to over viewing the data that the creator used to shape the hyperspace and ruling the life we live in and this incredible data is connected to achieve the main goal of life. Methods. Collecting data and analyzing then connecting them Results. A creator from a higher civilization made this hyperspace of multi-verse by using a special kind of programming

In present paper we argue that to explain the shape of the Rotation Curves (RC) of galaxies, there is no need to involve the concept of dark matter. Rotation curves are completely determined by the distribution of baryon matter and gas kinetics. Such parameters of the galaxy as barion mass and its distribution can be easily calculated from the observed RC. We show the extended parts of RCs to be just a wind tails, formed by gas of the outer disks in assumption that it obeys the laws of gas kinetics. As examples, the Galaxy, NGC7331 and NGC3198 are considered. We calculate total mass of the Galaxy and find it to be 23.7x10(10)M\_sun. For the NGC7331 and NGC3198 the calculated total masses are 37.6x10(10)M\_sun and 7.7x10(10)M\_sun respectively. Consequences for cosmology are discussed.

In 1907 Einstein discovered the key to understanding accelerating Hubble redshifts. By assuming that acceleration and gravity are equivalent (“The Happiest Thought of my Life”), he proved that Maxwell’s equations are the same in every acceler- ated reference frame but that vacuum permittivity depends on the acceleration. Vacuum permittivity is the scalar in Maxwell’s equations that determines the speed of light and the strength of electrical fields. Maxwell’s equations are valid in every coordinate sys- tem in general relativity. Vacuum permittivity depends on the spacetime curvature. For Friedmann spacetime, vacuum permittivity is proportional to the radius of the universe. When the radius changes, changing electrical fields in atoms change the wavelengths of emitted photons by about twice as much as photon wavelengths change. This is the key Einstein left us: The evolution of both photons and atoms must be used together to understand Hubble redshift. When this is done, the physics of Maxwell, Einstein, Bohr, and Friedmann fits modern Hubble redshift observations beautifully.

The manuscripts provides a novel starting guess for the solution of Kepler's equation for unknown eccentric anomaly E given the eccentricity e and the mean anomaly M of an elliptical orbit.

New simple and exact analytical solutions of Einstein equations of general relativity (GR) and of Qmoger (quantum modification of GR) equations are obtained. These solutions corresponds to processes with invariant density of enthalpy (energy plus pressure). Interpretation of this solutions in terms of cosmic radiation and production of massive particles, as well as comparison with cosmic data (without fitting), are presented. It is suggested, that isenthalpic processes can be relevant also to excessive radiation from Jupiter and Saturn. Similar processes potentially can be used as a new source of energy on Earth.

A model of the Universe is constructed and a number of problems in Contemporary physics like Baryon Asymmetry, Dark Matter, Proton Decay, Galaxy Rotation Curve, Quasars, SMBH, Relativistic Astrophysical Jets, Coronal Heating, Solar Cycle, Supernovae mechanism, Magnetar magnetic field, Cosmological Lithium problem, Solar neutrino problem, Existence of Black holes and Electron spin are discussed in the light of the Hypothetical Universe. It is proposed that there exists stable neutrons and antineutrons that could explain the Dark matter and the missing antimatter of the Universe.

The work is a mathematical approach to the entry of an aerospace vehicle, as a probe or capsule in the atmosphere of the planet Gliese 581d, using data collected from the results of atmospheric models of the planet. GJ581d was the first planet candidate of a few Earth masses reported in the circum-stellar habitable zone of another star. It is located in the Gliese 581 star system, is a star red dwarf about 20 light years away from Earth in the constellation Libra. Its estimated mass is about a third of that of the Sun. It has been suggested that the recently discovered exoplanet GJ581d might be able to support liquid water due to its relatively low mass and orbital distance. However, GJ581d receives 35% less stellar energy than the planet Mars and is probably locked in tidal resonance, with extremely low insolation at the poles and possibly a permanent night side. The climate that demonstrate GJ581d will have a stable atmosphere and surface liquid water for a wide range of plausible cases, making it the first confirmed super-Earth (2-10 Earth masses) in the habitable zone. According to the general principle of relativity, “All systems of reference are equivalent with respect to the formulation of the fundamental laws of physics.” In this case all the equations studied apply to the exoplanet Gliese 581d. If humanity is able to send a probe to Gliese 581d, this has all the mathematical conditions set it down successfully on its surface.

We present results from a joint NuSTAR/VLT monitoring of the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1365. We find conclusive evidences for an emission K alpha line from atomic vibranium in the X-ray spectrum, in combination with molecular vibranium absorption features in the mid-infrared spectrum. This is the first direct observation of vibranium in an astronomical environment. We also derive a measurement for its abundance of 2e-6 with respect to hydrogen.

The present study is an investigation of stellar physics based on observables such as mass, luminosity, radius, and photosphere temperature. We collected a dataset of these characteristics for 360 stars, and diagramed the relationships between their characteristics and their type (white dwarf, red dwarf, main sequence star, giant, supergiant, hypergiant, Wolf-Rayet, carbon star, etc.). For stars dominated by radiation pressure in the photosphere which follow the Eddington luminosity, we computed the opacity and cross section to photon flux per hydrogen nuclei in the photosphere. We considered the Sun as an example of star dominated by gas pressure in the photosphere, and estimated the density of the solar photosphere using limb darkening and assuming the adiabatic gradient of a monoatomic gas. We then estimated the cross section per hydrogen nuclei in the plasma of the solar photosphere, which we found to be about 2.66\e{-28} \, m^2, whereas the cross section of neutral hydrogen as given by the Bohr model is 8.82\e{-21} \, m^2. This result suggests that the electrons and protons in the plasma are virtually detached. Hence, a hydrogen plasma may be represented as a gas mixture of electrons and protons. If the stellar photosphere was made of large hydrogen atoms or ions such as the ones we find in gases, its surface would evaporate due to the high temperatures.

This mysterious effect has been given considerable thought as to its nature. Some have thought that the effect is due to unknown spacecraft effects, such as gas leaks or anisotropic thermal radiation. Others hold out for some fundamental physics that might alter the theory of gravitation. Recently, a complete analysis of rediscovered spacecraft data provides a credible story for spacecraft engineering being the cause. However, more fundamental physics has not been absolutely ruled out. This paper will relook at the anomaly from a fundamental perspective by applying a recently published physical theory to the Pioneer anomaly, and will show that a new theory can explain the effect.

We here apply the ASTG-model to the observed anomalous secular trend in the mean Sun-(Earth-Moon) and Earth-Moon distances. For the recession of the Earth-Moon system, in agreement with observation, we obtain a recession of about 11.20 ± 0.20 cm/yr. The ASTG-model predicts orbital drift as being a result of the orbital inclination and the Solar mass loss rate. The Newtonian gravitational constant G is assumed to be absolute time constant. Standish (2005); Krasinsky and Brumberg (2004) reported for the Earth-Moon system, an orbital recession from the Sun of about (15.00 ± 4.00) cm/yr; while Williams et al. (2004); Williams and Boggs (2009); Williams et al. (2014) report for the Moon, an orbital recession of about 38.00 mm/yr from the Earth. The predictions of the ASTG-model for the Earth-Moon system agrees very well with those the findings of Standish (2005); Krasinsky and Brumberg (2004). The lost orbital angular momen-tum for the Earth-Moon system – which we here hypothesize to be gained as spin by the two body Earth-Moon system; this lost angular momentum accounts very well for the observed lunar drift, therefore, one can safely safely say that the ASTG-model does to a reasonable degree of accuracy predict the observed lunar drift of about 38.00 mm/yr from the Earth.

We here apply – albeit, with improved assumptions compared to our earlier work (Nyambuya et al., Astron. & Astro-phys. S. Sci. 358(1) : pp.1 − 12, 2015); the ASTG-model to the observed secular trend in the mean Sun-(Earth-Moon) and Earth-Moon distances thereby providing an alternative explanation as to what the cause of this secular trend may be. For the semi-major axis rate of the Earth-Moon system, we now obtain a new value of about +3.00 cm/yr while in the earlier work we obtained a value of about 5.00 cm/yr. This new value of +3.00 cm/yr is closer to that of of Standish (2005)'s measurement of (7.00 ± 2.00) cm/yr. Our present value accounts for only 43% of Standish (2005)'s measurement. The other 57% can be accounted for by invoking the hypothesis that the θ-component of the angular momentum maybe non-zero. In the end, it can be said that the ASTG-model predicts orbital drift as being a result of the orbital inclination and the Solar mass loss rate. The Newtonian gravitational constant G is assumed to be an absolute time constant

When one talks about the density of a planet or star, one normally talks about the average density, despite the fact that the core is much more dense and the surface much less dense than the average density. Here we will link the notion of an average density to a new concept of a hypothetical planetary average subatomic particle. We will define this hypothetical particle as a particle if, when sphere-packed according to the Kepler conjuncture, it matches both the volume and the mass of the planet or sun in question. Even if this type of average particle may not actually exist, we still feel it gives us some new insight into how the average density could be linked to a hypothetical average particle. Take the question of how such a particle would be compared to an electron, for example. The answer is in the analytical solution presented.

The context of the paper is related to the flux density of the order of nJy reported in recent papers. The aim is to prove that the reported flux density of the order of nJy is wrong. A new table for both IR and UVIS channel of the HST/WFC3 is created of the order of flux density mJy. This table should be used as a template for future projects related to HST/WFC3. Any new measurements below mJy (reported in the table) should be rejected for obvious reasons reported in this paper. Due to the advent of algorithms and digital computing technology, these errors are possible.

This paper discusses how an observer, when properly defined, can lead to a different interpretation of the universe by providing a way to connect General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. First, this was used to investigate the mass of the Milky Way Galaxy, and the result suggests that dark matter does not exist. Then, Hubble's Law was examined, and we were led to the same conclusion, i.e., dark energy does not exist. Finally, the linkage of quantum mechanics and relativity provides another explanation of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and casts doubt on the Big Bang theory. All of these observations and conclusions were made possible by examining the philosophical foundation provided by a better understanding of how intelligent life forms make sense of the physical world. First, we discuss the intelligent life forms that are responsible for all observations and theories related to the universe. With this new understanding of ourselves, from a physics perspective, a philosophy emerges that alters our understanding of space and time. A theory is developed on this philosophical foundation that provides a way to connect the background dependence of quantum mechanics and the background independence of general relativity.

The light curve of KIC 8462852 in dips around day 1519 and 1568 shows features matching clearly the rotational period of the star. Changes in brightness (unevenly distributed around its surface in these two cases) are shown modulated by the rotational period. Therefore the probable explication of this mysterious variability must be some phenomenon of the star itself instead of occultations by external objects.

In this paper we show that each planet and sun (star) has a mathematical subatomic twin. Each planetary twin particle has exactly the same mathematical properties as its substantially larger twin planet or Sun. From a planet's twin particle we get the planet's escape velocity, its solar deflection, and its red shift. If we arrange these solar system twin particles with their relative distances as our real solar system then they will, based on Newton's law of gravitation, have the same orbital velocities as the true solar system. In other words, we have created a subatomic world that in many respects is a replica of the Macrocosmos.

The dark matter problem in the context of spiral galaxies refers to the discrepancy between the galactic mass estimated from luminosity measurements of galaxies with a given mass-to-luminosity ratio and the galactic mass measured from the rotational speed of stars using the Newton’s law. Newton’s law fails when applied to a star in a spiral galaxy. The problem stems from the fact that Newton’s law is applicable to masses represented as points by their barycenter. As spiral galaxies have shapes similar to a disk, we shall correct Newton’s law accordingly. We found that the Newton’s force exerted by the interior mass of a disk on an adjacent mass shall be multiplied by the coefficient ηdisk estimated to be 7.44±0.83 at a 99% confidence level. The corrective coefficient for the gravitational force exerted by a homogeneous sphere at it’s surface is 1.00±0.01 at a 99% confidence level, meaning that Newton’s law is not modified for a spherical geometry. This result was proven a long time ago by Newton in the shell theorem.

By extending the classic concept of parallax as a system to triangulate distant stars, I propose that a displacement in spacetime can be used to triangulate distant galaxies. Such an empirical experiment would also validate, or invalidate, conventional relative Doppler effect theory. The practical procedure would involve measuring SNe1 supernovae data analysis from two separate spacetime reference frames, using two essentially) simultaneous observations, from different inertial reference frames. Both rfs observe the same two supernovae events (a) and (b), such that (b) is twice the distance (x) from the Earth than (a). I named this experiment ”Spacetime Parallax”, because the triangulation of distance x is from a displacement in spacetime and the resulting time dilation is compared. This same format is then used for a quadratic accelerating reference frame, mimicking (g) force on the Earth’s surface. If the difference in wavelengths (∆λ), as measured between the two rfs, is not in proportion to the distance between the two events (x b = 2x a ), it is then justified to assume some error is evident in conventional methods. Correcting for such skewed Doppler shift observations has implications for all parameters of cosmology. This might include: dark energy, accelerated expansion, average density, the cosmic event horizon, as well as rotational velocities in general.

An X-particle with repulsive force proportional to energy density is postulated as an origin of dark energy. Like photon, the particle has only relativistic mass (zero rest mass), and acts like a particle that has a definite position and momentum. It creates spaces between them by forces of gravitational attraction and repulsion, where the repulsive force is postulated to be proportional to energy density. The model could be applied to explain the Lambda-CDM model of dark energy which is filling space homogeneously or to scalar fields such as quintessence whose energy density can vary in time and space.

Followed the Dr. Cooperstock (the emeritus professor) idea to solve Dark Matter problem by means of Einstein's General Relativity. Then is discovered, what the problem of galaxies (even with help of the proposed novel numerical algorithm) do not converge into needed solution. The reason is obvious: the small factors as the non-azimuthal motion of stars have been neglected. But the exact, the non-approximative, equations are simple enough for the stationary rotating dust cylinder of huge height. Turns out, what weak fields limit of the General Relativity fully coincides with the Newton Gravity

In this paper I present a baryon intrinsic Dark Matter halo model. The model gives a correct first order galactic rotation curve, leads to the baryonic Tully-Fisher relation and to the MOND force for the weak acceleration regime. Then I show that the MOND force can be derived from the combination of my model's potential and the first law of thermodynamics in the Helmholtz energy A = U - TS formulation. In my model the MOND work is identical to the Helmholtz work. The entropy connected to the intrinsic Dark Matter halo allows the derivation of the Dark Matter force, the deviation from Newton, as an entropic force. The definition of the entropy leads to a new parameter, of dimensional degrees of freedom, added to MOND. This new parameter solves the galaxy cluster mass discrepancy problem of MOND and produces and exact relationship between the MOND acceleration and the Hubble acceleration, with cosmological implications. In my model the cosmic structure formation degree of freedom value $N = \sqrt{cH_0/a_0}=2.1$, is also the minimum mass discrepancy in the MOND cluster analysis. The realization that MOND is a theory based on Helmholtz work shifts the question regarding its relativistic formulation towards the larger problem of a relativistic formulation of thermodynamics, a highly discussed and accepted problem in physics. It touches upon the arrow of time issue.

In a previous paper I showed how a new parameter added to MOND, the entropic degree of freedom N, exactly solved the MOND galaxy cluster mass discrepancy problem. In this paper I show that the same entropic degree of freedom produces an exact interpretation of Milgrom's approximate 5.a_0= c.H_0. The new relation gives N^2.a_0 = c.H_0. With present day values, N = 2.13, the cosmic degree of freedom of the entropic force in relation to cosmic structure formation.

In this paper I derive an emergent Dark Matter force using the virial theorem in the context of the Dark Matter halo model. This emergent force is then used to inductively derive a Dark Matter entropy S and a Dark Matter number of microstates W. I then show that this emergent force can be interpreted as an entropic force. Using the first law of thermodynamics a set of two forces can be derived from my model's potential function, with the Newtonian force of gravity derived from the energy as the first one and the emergent Dark Matter force derived from entropy as the second one.

NASA programme Apollo landed men on the Moon and returned them safely to Earth. In support of their achievements NASA presented, among others, two pieces of evidence which are subject of this report, namely, the photographs of the Apollo 11 landing site; and, the video-recording of the Apollo 17 lift-off. Starting from post-landing NASA documents, the Apollo 11 landing sequence is proposed in which the Lunar Module cruises at the height of the Lunar Surface Sensing Probes (LSSP, some $1.7$~m above the ground) for as much as ten seconds before touchdown, and it is the -Y/Left and +Y/Right landing gears that touched the surfrace first. This is then compared to pre-landing NASA experimental investigation, % of landing gear performance in simulated lunar conditions according to which the deformation energy $\mbox{DE} \gsimeq \mbox{KE}$, the impact kinetic energy, while the potential energy from settling is the smallest, $\mbox{PE} \ll \mbox{KE}$; and that the one or two gears touching the surface first, absorb most of KE. Contrary to expectations, NASA reported that -Z/Aft landing gear absorbed as much energy as all the other gears combined, and that $\mbox{DE} \simeq \frac12\,\mbox{KE}$. It is shown that this outcome is consistent with the dry Lunar Module being lowered to an uneven surface at near-zero vertical velocity and then released to settle down in Earth-like gravity. Next, we examine the behavior of the LSSPs in the 360\deg~yaw that the Apollo 11 Lunar Module performed during the Inspection and Separation Stage in the lunar circular orbit. Contrary to NASA's own reference drawings of the fully deployed LSSPs, we find that during the maneuver the LSSPs are always flexed mildly-inwards, as if the Lunar Module were suspended in the presence of gravity, and not weightless in the lunar orbit. Lastly, detailed analysis of the Apollo 17 lift-off video recording is presented. It is shown that the vessel trajectory implies an additional propulsion in form of an explosion, while the video frames flicker at 5~Hz and 10~Hz rate and carry an artefact strongly resembling an edge of film stock. An analysis of illumination of the ascending Lunar Module is also presented, which suggests that the vessel is approaching near-by light source rather then being lit by the Sun (at infinity). A discussion of the entire scene follows, and an explanation for the explosion is proposed. Overall, it is concluded that the photographs and the video recording depict scenes that were staged here on Earth, rather then on the way to the Moon.

In this paper I combine the elementary particle Dark matter halo hypothesis with the Baryonic Tully-Fisher relation. It results in a universal Dark Matter galaxy gravitational centripetal acceleration and connects the galaxy specific Dark Matter radius uniquely to the galaxy rotation curve's final velocity. This allows the precise operational definition of the galaxy specific Dark Matter density function and mass function.

Via decrement of mass of planets, we can send the entire planets to far space orbital allocations. We can convert physical matter into energy, it can either get irradiated to outer space, get transmitted back to Earth's potential energy, get used as a self-propellant, or it can get used in a complex model of these systems; it decreases the mass of the planet. By conversion of the matter to energy, Earth will lose some mass that decreases the gravitational fields for Earth; the formulas of the current research are deduced to control the movements of the planets. Celestial bodies, like any other mechanical systems which follow, and are based on, the physical laws of mechanics and dynamical systems, follow these laws. So since the celestial object “A” exerts the “F” force on the celestial object “B”, the celestial object “B” exerts an interactive force “F” on the celestial object “A” also. All celestial objects exert gravitational influences on each other. Scientists believe, once upon a time, the Sun would be much hotter than what it is today. By that point, this high temperature leads to extinction of the entire existence of life on Earth. When the gravitational force changes, a space particle may either get departed from the other particle or come closer to the other particle.

A Java program is presented which extracts star positions from the Hipparcos main catalogue and places them into a sphere collection rendered in a VRML97 file. The main options to the executable are a cut-off distance to some center of the scene (the sun by default) and a density of labeling some or all of the spheres with common names, Henry Draper numbers or Hipparcos ID's.

TPB postulates that time is actually observed and measured with a perspective, analogous to 2D linear perspective in architecture. Accelerated expansion is therefore an illusion (of perspective). Photons travelling to an observer, from remote past events, will appear to arrive with successively decreased time intervals. However, the difference is minute and only significant over scales, measured in LY. Note: TPB does not contradict time dilation, GR, nor expansion. In TPB, corrections of distorted time intervals are first calculated (t'). All classical and relativistic physics should follow, subsequently.

Rotation curves of spiral galaxies for baryonic masses, which are inconsistent with the law of gravity, constitute one of the pillars of the dark matter concept. This publication shows that the effects attributed to the influence of dark matter in spiral galaxies, are extremely similar to effects of a certain physical mechanism, which has been noticed during the analysis of this problem.

The Etherington's distance-duality equation is the relationship between the luminosity distance of standard candles and the angular-diameter distance. This relationship has been validated from astronomical observations based on the X-ray surface brightness and the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect of galactic clusters. In the present study, we propose a derivation of the Etherington's reciprocity relation in the dichotomous cosmology.

The notion is presented that fitting galaxy rotation curves is possible without the invocation of dark matter. Equations of motion similar to those used to describe the internal motions of terrestrial weather systems are applied to the rotation curves of galaxies. However, due to the four-dimensional nature of the equations, additional terms arise. One of these additional terms is particularly useful in matching the rotation curves of galaxies. The extra term presumably describes internal properties of the central galactic black hole. It also determines, in part, the galactic rotation curve, just as the motion of winds in a terrestrial weather system are determined, in part, by the rotation of the Earth.

In this short letter, we argue that the observed +38 mm/yr secular Lunar drift from the Earth does – to an admirable degree of agreement between theory and observations ; explain the observed secular increase in the Lunar eccentricity. At present, the recession of the Moon from the Earth is not any more considered as an anomaly as this is believed to be well explained by conventional physics of Lunar-Earth tides. However, the same is not true when it comes to the observed increase in the Lunar eccentricity which is considered to be an anomaly requiring an explanation as to what is the cause behind this phenomenon. We not only demonstrate an intimate connection between these two seemingly unrelated phenomenon, but show that the intimate relationship that we deduce fits so well with observations to a point that – logic dictates that, the Lunar drift must surely be the cause of the secular increase in the Lunar eccentricity.

According to the planetary origin conceptual model proposed in this paper, the protosun centre of the pre-solar nebula exploded, resulting in a shock wave that passed through it and then returned to the centre, generating a new explosion and shock wave. Recurrent explosions in the nebula resulted in a spherical standing sound wave, whose antinodes concentrated dust into rotating rings that transformed into planets. The extremely small angular momentum of the Sun and the tilt of its equatorial plane were caused by the asymmetry of the first, most powerful explosion. Differences between inner and outer planets are explained by the migration of solid matter, while the Oort cloud is explained by the division of the pre-solar nebula into a spherical internal nebula and an expanding spherical shell of gas. The proposed conceptual model can also explain the origin and evolution of exoplanetary systems and may be of use in searching for new planets.

An example of mind blowing is the Dr. Cooperstock. First his attempt was to deny the Standards of Metrology (within "Energy Localization hypothesis"). I have arguments against his idea. Then he came up with another mind abuse: absence of long detected Dark Matter. In the following I am defending the Dark Matter from the nihilistic aggression of Dr. Cooperstock. Speaking of nihilism, the most grim picture is in Quantum Mechanics of Niels Bohr. In 2015 they have "proved" in elitist "Nature", that Schr"odinger's Cat is real. Thus, the world does not exist: a thing can not both be and not be. It is very convenient now: if even a grain of sand is crazy hallucination (like the "proven" "reality" of undead cat), then this non-existent grain needs no divine (loved, but more often hated) Creator. The reason of delusion: they have missed an intelligent factors, e.g. evil spirits, which very often act on the measuring device. Recall the wrong alarms in atomic armies.

English (traslation): It is described here as the electric charge is not invariable, but depends on the solar orbit. It also equates with what could be considered as gravitational charge, both by the diamond related parameters. Is also shown, as to vary the frequencies at different orbits, one can conclude the actual temperature of Sol. It is stated that the brightness per unit area is constant. And he concludes that both sunspots and magnetic reversals are caused by the permutation of links between gravitons and sets of stars of matter and antimatter. Spanish (original): Se describe aquí como la carga eléctrica no es invariable, sino que depende de la órbita solar. Se equipara, además, con lo que se podría considerar como carga gravitatoria, relacionadas ambas mediante los parámetros diamante. Se muestra también, como al variar las frecuencias en las distintas órbitas, se puede concluir la temperatura real del Sol. Se expone que la luminosidad por unidad de superficie es constante. Y se concluye afirmando que tanto las manchas solares como las inversiones magnéticas están causadas por la permutación de enlaces entre los gravitones y los conjuntos de estrellas de materia y antimateria.

Pioneer and Flyby anomalies are astrophysical anomalies in our solar system. Standard physics explanations for Pioneer anomaly have been proposed but certainly fail for Flyby anomalies. In this article I update almost decade old TGD inspired model for these anomalies as direct demonstration about existence of spherical dark matter shells associated with planets and with radii of planetary orbits. The dark matter density would be universal as also the accleration anomaly equal to Hubble acceleration. A possible test for the model is provided by Earth-Moon system.

In this article we discuss the possibility that an extraterrestrial species could be hostile to humanity, and present estimates for the probability that visitors to the Earth will be aggressive. For this purpose we develop a generic model of multiple civilizations which are permitted to interact, and using randomized parameters we simulate thousands of potential worlds through several millenia of their development. By reviewing the species which survive the simulation, we can estimate the fraction of species which are hostile and the fraction which are supportive of other cultures.

By differentiating the standard formula for the luminosity distance with respect to time, we find that the equation is inconsistent with light propagation. Therefore, a new defnition of the luminosity distance is provided for an expanding Universe. From supernovae observations, using this defnition we find that the Hubble parameter is a constant of physics equal to Ho = 63.2 km/s/Mpc.

Since the proof given by Wang Qiu-Dong on Dirichlet's assertion is based on the successive approximations objections to assumptions of the global solution of this problem have to be raised.

[The paper is precisely the preprint viXra:1407.0070 which was withdrawn as suggested by a well-known mainstream journal. However, the editors simply played game with me. I am afraid I could not find a job through my life. I am over 53 year old and got sleepless each day. Life as a creative scientist is very hard， and academic circle has turned to be a common profitable business. Galilei, Newton, Maxwell, Planck could not have had a job if they had lived today] If there were no electromagnetic interaction in the Solar system from the beginning then no heavy bodies like Earth or Sun would have existed and elementary particles would miss collision with each other due to the sparse population of particles. The solar system would have been a tiny ``spiral galaxy'' or ``elliptical galaxy'' because of the structuring nature of Newton's gravity.

The observed absence of a cuspy halo in the centers of galaxies implies a certain mechanism, which scatter DM. As this mechanism is considered annihilation of galactic antineutrino DM and neutrino DM of stellar origin. Annihilation intensity increases towards the center with increasing concentration of stars and density of DM, however, the scattering effect of annihilation begins to manifest mainly in the bulge. Based on such a hysteresis of scattering effect, we make up a two-level mass model of the Milky Way, where the mass distribution is regulated at two levels of concentration by one and the same law of decreasing density, inversely proportional to the distance from the center of power of 2.5. The first level starts from the surface of the central neutron collapsar and ends at the border of the bulge, and the second level extends from the bulge to the edge of the Galaxy.

Galaxies demonstrate spectacular structure and ordinary spiral galaxies are simply an exponential disk. A rational structure has at least one net of orthogonal Darwin curves, and the exponential disk has infinite nets. This paper proves that the nets of Darwin curves of exponential disk define an intrinsic vector field in the disk plane. Finally, a proposition is given that the vector field should connect to the phenomenon of constant rotation curves.

English (traslation): The current model of the structure of the planets at issue in this article. Arguing that probably your inner core is composed of hydrogen (like the stars), and temperature Hartree. It is also proposed that the age of the planets is the same as that of the stars. And while they generate electromagnetic radiation, the planets would generate matter. Spanish (original): Se cuestiona en éste artículo el actual modelo de la estructura de los planetas. Argumentando que probablemente su núcleo interno esté compuesto por hidrógeno (al igual que las estrellas), y a la temperatura de Hartree. Se propone asimismo que la antigüedad de los planetas es la misma que la de las estrellas. Y que mientras éstas generan radiación electromagnética, los planetas generarían materia.

Natural structure is unique and galaxies are natural structure. In our previous work, we showed that rational structure is unique. In this paper, the unique two-parameter rational structure is used to model barred galaxies. The model fits to galaxy images satisfactorily and the prediction on galaxy arms is consistent with observation. Today the accepted theory applied to galaxies is Newton's universal gravity which, however, fails to galactic observation generally. Accordingly, dark matter was introduced but has never been observed. A simple glimpse of the images of edge-on spiral galaxies suggests that Newton's concept of action at a distance should be rejected. It is hard to imagine that the stars far away from the galaxy center suffer an instant force from the center. In our previous work we suggested a new universal gravity which generalizes Newton's one and is uniquely determined by rational structure. The new gravity results from local curvature of Darwin surfaces and simply explains the kinematic phenomenon of constant rotation curves. In this paper, a preliminary study on the new gravity with Poisson's equation is presented which verifies the phenomenon.

It is generally assumed that Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (GTR) is silent on the issue of planetary recession such as has been measured recently. In this short note, we demonstrate that the GTR is not silent on this matter, it does make a clear predictions albeit, predictions that is contrary with experience and for this task, we use the same solution that was and has been used triumphantly to explain the perihelion precession of the planet Mercury. From a pure stand-point of binary logic, we expect this solution to stand-up to all its predictions for both the precession of perihelion precession and as-well the expansion of orbits. At any rate imaginable, this apparent contradiction presents an interesting state of affairs for the GTR.

The dichotomous cosmology is an alternative to the expanding Universe theory, and consists of a static matter Universe, where cosmological redshifts are explained by a tired-light model with an expanding luminous world. In this model the Hubble constant is also the photon energy decay rate, and the luminous world is expanding at a constant rate as in de Sitter cosmology for an empty Universe. The present model explains both the luminosity distance versus redshift relationship of supernovae Ia, and ageing of spectra observed with the stretching of supernovae light curves. Furthermore, it is consistent with a radiation energy density factor (1 + z)^4 inferred from the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.

I'm going to prove in this brief paper that actually there is not a so called "cosmic inflation", because that so called "cosmic inflation" is just an artifact of an incorrect theoretic model of Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves in remote sources.

We tested alternative cosmologies using Monte Carlo simulations based on the sampling method of the zCosmos galactic survey. The survey encompasses a collection of observable galaxies with respective redshifts that have been obtained for a given spectroscopic area of the sky. Using a cosmological model, we can convert the redshifts into light-travel times and, by slicing the survey into small redshift buckets, compute a curve of galactic density over time. Because foreground galaxies obstruct the images of more distant galaxies, we simulated the theoretical galactic density curve using an average galactic radius. By comparing the galactic density curves of the simulations with that of the survey, we could assess the cosmologies. We applied the test to the expanding-universe cosmology of de Sitter and to a dichotomous cosmology.

A mother, a father, and their daughter were taking a picture. They were 5, 7, and 2 feet tall respectively. The parents stood in a row, and their daughter stood in front of her mother. My son saw this and ran quickly in front of the father before the picture was taken. I asked my son why. He answered that he was exactly 4 feet tall. I figured out his reasoning, and afterwards I have become an astrophysicist. A pattern is a distribution of differences. In the array pattern of the above-said four people, the height differences between adults and between kids are equal, and the height differences between females and between males are equal too. This simple pattern can be generalized into any array of numbers. Assume the differences of numbers in a row are equal to the corresponding differences in any other row. That is, there exist the common differences in all rows. Similarly assume the common differences in all columns. Then the pattern is called a rational structure. Assume the number at the bottom left corner is zero, C(0,0) = 0, and denote the series of numbers in the bottom row by U(i) and the series of numbers in the first column by V(j). I found the formula for the rational array: C = U(i) + V(j). This is called Skew Law. I generalized the rows and columns to be curved, and required that the curves cross each other at a right angle. This was exactly my idea of galaxy patterns. In this paper I show that the patterns are governed by the Riccati equation with constant coefficients; and the curves are governed by a type of algebraic equations. The cubic equation of the type gives a pattern which resembles the sharp bar of galaxy NGC 1073. Are all barred galaxies governed by the cubic and higher degrees of algebraic equations? The question will be resolved in the near future.

The present letter presents an improved version of the Azimuthally Symmetric Theory of Gravitation (ASTG-model) which was presented for the first time four years ago (in Nyambuya 2010). Herein, we propose a solution to the standing problem of the lambda-parameters in which effort we put the ASTG-model on a clear pedestal for falsification. The perihelion precessional data of Solar planetary orbits is used to set the theory into motion. As a way of demonstrating the latent power of the new theory, we show in separate letters that -- one of the most important and outstanding problems in astrophysics today -- the Radiation Problem; which is thought to bedevil massive stars during their formation, may find a plausible solution in the ASTG-model. Further, from within the confines of this new theory, we also demonstrate (in a separate letter) that the Emergence of Bipolar Molecular Outflows may very be an azimuthal gravitational phenomenon. Furthermore, we also show (in a separate letter as-well) that the ASTG-model does, to a reasonable extent explain the tilt of Solar planetary orbits.

In the liquid metallic hydrogen solar model (LMHSM), the chromosphere is the site of hydrogen condensation (P.M. Robitaille. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere IV. On the Nature of the Chromosphere. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 3, L15-L21). Line emission is associated with the dissipation of energy from condensed hydrogen structures, CHS. Previously considered reactions resulted in hydrogen atom or cluster addition to the site of condensation. In this work, an additional mechanism is presented, wherein atomic or molecular species interact with CHS, but do not deposit hydrogen. These reactions channel heat away from CHS, enabling them to cool even more rapidly. As a result, this new class of processes could complement true hydrogen condensation reactions by providing an auxiliary mechanism for the removal of heat. Such `futile' reactions lead to the formation of activated atoms, ions, or molecules and might contribute to line emission from such species. Evidence that complimentary `futile' reactions might be important in the chromosphere can be extracted from lineshape analysis.

Transition Metals (TM) are proposed to play a role in astrophysical environments in both gas and solid state astrochemistry by co-determining the homogeneous/heterogeneous catalysis represented by the gas/gas and gas/dust grain interactions. Their chemistry is function of temperature, radiation field and chemical composition and, as a consequence, dependent from the astrophysical object in which the TM are localized, i.e interstellar medium (ISM), molecular clouds, hot cores and corinos. Five main categories of TM compounds classified as: a) pure bulk and clusters; b) TM naked ions; c) TM oxides/minerals or inorganic; d) TM-L (L = ligand) with L = sigma and/or pi-donor/acceptor species like H/H2, N/N2, CO, H2O and e) TM-organoligands such as Cp, PAH, R1=°=°=R2 are proposed. Such variety of TM compounds opens the door to an enormous potential contribution to a fine astrochemical synthesis. Particular attention and interest has been applied to the chemistry of simple TM compounds with general formula: [TMm-Xy]+n with +n=total charge and X = non-TM element. Constraining the TM and the X elements on the basis of their reciprocal reactivity and cosmic abundances, the chemistry of TM = Fe coupled with N, O, S open the pathway to the correlated organic chemistry. In particular the chemistry of the iron molecular oxide [FeO]+1 and nitride [FeN]+1 will be analyzed, due to their ability to perform C-C and C-H bond activations, opening the pathway to the oxydation/hydroxylation and nitrogenation/amination of organic substrates contributing, for example, to explain the detected presence of NH, NH2 and CH3OH in diffuse gas, where actual gas-phase and grain surface chemical models cannot adequately explain the data. Summarizing the TM fine chemistry is expected to contribute to the known synthesis of organic compounds leading towards a new path in the astrochemistry field whose qualitative (type of compounds) and quantitative contribution must be unraveled.

PACS:98.62.-g An analytical model of galactic morphology is presented. This model presents resolutions to two inter-related parameters of spiral galaxies: one being the flat velocity rotation profile and the other being the spiral morphology of such galaxies. This model is a mathematical transformation dictated by the general theory of relativity applied to rotating polar coordinate systems that conserve the metric. The model shows that the flat velocity rotation profile and spiral shape of certain galaxies are both products of the general theory. Validation of the model is presented by application to 878 rotation curves provided by Salucci, and by comparing the results of a derived distance modulus to those using Cepheid variables, water masers and Tully-Fisher calculations. The model suggests means of determining galactic linear density, mass and angular momentum. We also show that the morphology of NGC 3198 is congruent to the geodesic of a rotating reference frame and is therefore gravitationally viscous and self bound.

Helioseismological studies have the ability to yield tremendous insight with respect to the internal structure and shape of the solar body. Such observations indicate that while the convection zone displays differential rotation, the core rotates as a rigid body. The latter is located below the tachocline layer, where powerful shear stresses are believed to occur. Beyond simple oblateness, seismological studies indicate that the Sun displays significant higher order shape terms (quadrupole, hexadecapole) which may, or may not, vary with the solar cycle. In this work, such seismological findings are briefly discussed with the intent of highlighting that 1) the differential rotation of the convection zone, 2) the rigid body rotation of the core, 3) the presence of the tachocline layer and 4) the appearance of higher order shape terms, all lend support to the idea that the solar body is composed of material in the condensed state. In this regard, the existence of the tachocline layer in the solar interior and the solid body rotation of the core constitute the nineteenth and twentieth lines of evidence that the Sun is condensed matter.

In modern solar theory, the photospheric surface merely acts as an optical illusion. Gases cannot support the existence of such a boundary. Conversely, the liquid metallic hydrogen model supports the idea that the Sun has a distinct surface. Observational astronomy continues to report increasingly precise measures of solar radius and diameter. Even the smallest temporal variations in these parameters would have profound implications relative to modeling the Sun and understanding climate fluctuations on Earth. A review of the literature convincingly demonstrates that the solar body does indeed possess a measurable radius which provides, along with previous discussions (Robitaille P.M. On the Presence of a Distinct Solar Surface: A Reply to Herv´e Faye. Progr. Phys., 2011, v. 3, 75–78.), the twenty-first line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed-matter.

While mankind will always remain unable to sample the interior of the Sun, the presence of sunspots and coronal holes can provide clues as to its subsurface structure. Insight relative to the solar body can also be gained by recognizing that the Sun must exist in the condensed state and support a discrete lattice structure, as required for the production of its continuous spectrum. In this regard, the layered liquid metallic hydrogen lattice advanced as a condensed model of the Sun (Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen: A Building Block for the Liquid Sun. Progr. Phys., 2011, v. 3, 60–74; Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen II: A Critical Assessment of Current and Primordial Helium Levels in Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, 35–47; Robitaille J.C. and Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen III. Intercalation and Lattice Exclusion Versus Gravitational Settling and Their Consequences Relative to Internal Structure, Surface Activity, and Solar Winds in the Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, in press) provides the ability to add structure to the solar interior. This constitutes a significant advantage over the gaseous solar models. In fact, a layered liquid metallic hydrogen lattice and the associated intercalation of non-hydrogen elements can help to account for the position of sunspots and coronal holes. At the same time, this model provides a greater understanding of the mechanisms which drive solar winds and activity.

Coronal rain represents blobs of solar material with a width of ~300 km and a length of ~700 km which are falling from the active region of the corona towards the solar surface along loop-like paths. Conversely, coronal showers are comprised of much larger bulks of matter, or clumps of solar rain. Beyond coronal rain and showers, the expulsion of solar matter from the surface, whether through flares, prominences, or coronal mass ejections, can result in massive disruptions which have been observed to rise far into the corona, return towards the Sun, and splashdown onto the photosphere. The existence of coronal rain and the splashdown of mass ejections onto the solar surface constitute the twenty-third and twenty-fourth lines of evidence that the Sun is condensed matter.

The apparent depletion of lithium represents one of the greatest challenges to modern gaseous solar models. As a result, lithium has been hypothesized to undergo nuclear burning deep within the Sun. Conversely, extremely low lithium abundances can be easily accounted for within the liquid metallic hydrogen model, as lithium has been hypothesized to greatly stabilize the formation of metallic hydrogen (E. Zurek et al. A little bit of lithium does a lot for hydrogen. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 2009, v. 106, no. 42, 17640–17643). Hence, the abundances of lithium on the solar surface can be explained, not by requiring the nuclear burning of this element, but rather, by suggesting that the Sun is retaining lithium within the solar body in order to help stabilize its liquid metallic hydrogen lattice. Unlike lithium, many of the other elements synthesized within the Sun should experience powerful lattice exclusionary forces as they are driven out of the intercalate regions between the layered liquid metallic hydrogen hexagonal planes (Robitaille J.C. and Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen III. Intercalation and Lattice Exclusion Versus Gravitational Settling and Their Consequences Relative to Internal Structure, Surface Activity, and Solar Winds in the Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, in press). As for lithium, its stabilizing role within the solar interior helps to account for the lack of this element on the surface of the Sun.

The chromosphere and corona of the Sun represent tenuous regions which are characterized by numerous optically thin emission lines in the ultraviolet and X-ray bands. When observed from the center of the solar disk outward, these emission lines experience modest brightening as the limb is approached. The intensity of many ultraviolet and X-ray emission lines nearly doubles when observation is extended just beyond the edge of the disk. These findings indicate that the solar body is opaque in this frequency range and that an approximately two fold greater region of the solar atmosphere is being sampled outside the limb. These observations provide strong support for the presence of a distinct solar surface. Therefore, the behavior of the emission lines in this frequency range constitutes the twenty fifth line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter.

The continuous spectrum of the solar photosphere stands as the paramount observation with regard to the condensed nature of the solar body. Studies relative to Kirchhoff’s law of thermal emission (e.g. Robitaille P.-M. Kirchhoff’s law of thermal emission: 150 years. Progr. Phys., 2009, v. 4, 3–13.) and a detailed analysis of the stellar opacity problem (Robitaille P.M. Stellar opacity: The Achilles’ heel of the gaseous Sun. Progr. Phys., 2011, v. 3, 93–99) have revealed that gaseous models remain unable to properly account for the generation of this spectrum. Therefore, it can be stated with certainty that the photosphere is comprised of condensed matter. Beyond the solar surface, the chromospheric layer of the Sun also generates a weak continuous spectrum in the visible region. This emission exposes the presence of material in the condensed state. As a result, above the level of the photosphere, matter exists in both gaseous and condensed forms, much like within the atmosphere of the Earth. The continuous visible spectrum associated with the chromosphere provides the twenty-sixth line of evidence that the Sun is condensed matter.

The K-corona, a significant portion of the solar atmosphere, displays a continuous spectrum which closely parallels photospheric emission, though without the presence of overlying Fraunhofer lines. The E-corona exists in the same region and is characterized by weak emission lines from highly ionized atoms. For instance, the famous green emission line from coronium (FeXIV) is part of the E-corona. The F-corona exists beyond the K/E-corona and, like the photospheric spectrum, is characterized by Fraunhofer lines. The F-corona represents photospheric light scattered by dust particles in the interplanetary medium. Within the gaseous models of the Sun, the K-corona is viewed as photospheric radiation which has been scattered by relativistic electrons. This scattering is thought to broaden the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum such that they can no longer be detected in the K-corona. Thus, the gaseous models of the Sun account for the appearance of the K-corona by distorting photospheric light, since they are unable to have recourse to condensed matter to directly produce such radiation. Conversely, it is now advanced that the continuous emission of the K-corona and associated emission lines from the E-corona must be interpreted as manifestations of the same phenomenon: condensed matter exists in the corona. It is well-known that the Sun expels large amounts of material from its surface in the form of flares and coronal mass ejections. Given a liquid metallic hydrogen model of the Sun, it is logical to assume that such matter, which exists in the condensed state on the solar surface, continues to manifest its nature once expelled into the corona. Therefore, the continuous spectrum of the K-corona provides the twenty-seventh line of evidence that the Sun is composed of condensed matter.

The solar corona and chromosphere are often marked by eruptive features, such as flares, prominences, loops, and coronal mass ejections, which rise above the photospheric surface. Coronal streamers and plumes can also characterize the outer atmosphere of the Sun. All of these structures, fascinating in their extent and formation, frequently emit continuous spectra and can usually be observed using white-light coronagraphs. This implies, at least in part, that they are comprised of condensed matter. The continuous spectra associated with chromospheric and coronal structures can be viewed as representing the twenty-eighth line of evidence, and the eighth Planckian proof, that the Sun is condensed matter. The existence of such objects also suggests that the density of the solar atmosphere rises to levels well in excess of current estimates put forth by the gaseous models of the Sun. In this work, the densities of planetary atmospheres are examined in order to gain insight relative to the likely densities of the solar chromosphere. Elevated densities in the solar atmosphere are also supported by coronal seismology studies, which can be viewed as constituting the twenty-ninth line of evidence that the Sun is composed of condensed matter.

The chromosphere is the site of weak emission lines characterizing the flash spectrum observed for a few seconds during a total eclipse. This layer of the solar atmosphere is known to possess an opaque Hα emission and a great number of spicules, which can extend well above the photosphere. A stunning variety of hydrogen emission lines have been observed in this region. The production of these lines has provided the seventeenth line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter (Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen II: A critical assessment of current and primordial helium levels in Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, 35–47). Contrary to the gaseous solar models, the simplest mechanism for the production of emission lines is the evaporation of excited atoms from condensed surfaces existing within the chromosphere, as found in spicule. This is reminiscent of the chemiluminescence which occurs during the condensation of silver clusters (Konig L., Rabin I., Schultze W., and Ertl G. Chemiluminescence in the Agglomeration of Metal Clusters. Science, v. 274, no. 5291, 1353–1355). The process associated with spicule formation is an exothermic one, requiring the transport of energy away from the site of condensation. As atoms leave localized surfaces, their electrons can occupy any energy level and, hence, a wide variety of emission lines are produced. In this regard, it is hypothesized that the presence of hydrides on the Sun can also facilitate hydrogen condensation in the chromosphere. The associated line emission from main group and transition elements constitutes the thirtieth line of evidence that the Sun is condensed matter. Condensation processes also help to explain why spicules manifest an apparently constant temperature over their entire length. Since the corona supports magnetic field lines, the random orientations associated with spicule formation suggests that the hydrogen condensates in the chromosphere are not metallic in nature. Spicules provide a means, not to heat the corona, but rather, for condensed hydrogen to rejoin the photospheric layer of the Sun. Spicular velocities of formation are known to be essentially independent of gravitational effects and highly supportive of the hypothesis that true condensation processes are being observed. The presence of spicules brings into question established chromospheric densities and provides additional support for condensation processes in the chromosphere, the seventh line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter.

The E-corona is the site of numerous emission lines associated with high ionization states (i.e. FeXIV-FeXXV).Modern gaseous models of the Sun require that these states are produced by atomic irradiation, requiring the sequential removal of electrons to infinity, without an associated electron acceptor. This can lead to computed temperatures in the corona which are unrealistic (i.e. ~30–100 MK contrasted to solar core values of ~16 MK). In order to understand the emission lines of the E-corona, it is vital to recognize that they are superimposed upon the K-corona, which produces a continuous spectrum, devoid of Fraunhofer lines, arising from this same region of the Sun. It has been advanced that the K-corona harbors self-luminous condensed matter (Robitaille P.M. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere II. Continuous Emission and Condensed Matter Within the Corona. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 3, L8–L10; Robitaille P.M. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere III. Importance of Continuous Emission Spectra from Flares, Coronal Mass Ejections, Prominences, and Other Coronal Structures. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 3, L11–L14). Condensed matter can possess elevated electron affinities which may strip nearby atoms of their electrons. Such a scenario accounts for the high ionization states observed in the corona: condensed matter acts to harness electrons, ensuring the electrical neutrality of the Sun, despite the flow of electrons and ions in the solar winds. Elevated ionization states reflect the presence of materials with high electron affinities in the corona, which is likely to be a form of metallic hydrogen, and does not translate into elevated temperatures in this region of the solar atmosphere. As a result, the many mechanisms advanced to account for coronal heating in the gaseous models of the Sun are superfluous, given that electron affinity, not temperature, governs the resulting spectra. In this regard, the presence of highly ionized species in the corona constitutes the thirty-first line of evidence that the Sun is composed of condensed matter.

Molecular hydrogen and hydrides have recently been advanced as vital agents in the generation of emission spectra in the chromosphere. This is a result of the role they play in the formation of condensed hydrogen structures (CHS) within the chromosphere (P.M. Robitaille. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere IV. On the Nature of the Chromosphere. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 3, 15–21). Next to hydrogen, helium is perhaps the most intriguing component in this region of the Sun. Much like other elements, which combine with hydrogen to produce hydrides, helium can form the well-known helium hydride molecular ion, HeH+, and the excited neutral helium hydride molecule, HeH*. While HeH+ is hypothesized to be a key cosmological molecule, it's possible presence in the Sun, and that of its excited neutral counterpart, has not been considered. Still, these hydrides are likely to play a role in the synthesis of CHS, as the He I and He II emission lines strongly suggest. In this regard, the study of helium emission spectra can provide insight into the condensed nature of the Sun, especially when considering the 10830 Å line associated with the 2³P-2³S triplet state transition. This line is strong in solar prominences and can be seen clearly on the disk. The excessive population of helium triplet states cannot be adequately explained using the gaseous models, since these states should be depopulated by collisional processes. Conversely, when He-based molecules are used to build CHS in a liquid metallic hydrogen model, an ever increasing population of the 2³S and 2³P states might be expected. The overpopulation of these triplet states leads to the conclusion that these emission lines are unlikely to be produced through random collisional or photon excitation, as required by the gaseous models. This provides a significant hurdle for these models. Thus, the strong 2³P-2³S lines and the overpopulation of the helium triplet states provides the thirty-second line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter.

In the liquid metallic hydrogen model of the Sun, the chromosphere is responsible for the capture of atomic hydrogen in the solar atmosphere and its eventual re-entry onto the photospheric surface (P.M. Robitaille. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere IV. On the Nature of the Chromosphere. Prog. Phys., 2013, v. 3, L15–L21). As for the corona, it represents a diffuse region containing both gaseous plasma and condensed matter with elevated electron affinity (P.M. Robitaille. The Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Model of the Sun and the Solar Atmosphere V. On the Nature of the Corona. Prog. Phys., 2013, v. 3, L22–L25). Metallic hydrogen in the corona is thought to enable the continual harvest of electrons from the outer reaches of the Sun, thereby preserving the neutrality of the solar body. The rigid rotation of the corona is offered as the thirty-third line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter. Within the context of the gaseous models of the Sun, a 100 km thick transition zone has been hypothesized to exist wherein temperatures increase dramatically from 104–106 K. Such extreme transitional temperatures are not reasonable given the trivial physical scale of the proposed transition zone, a region adopted to account for the ultra-violet emission lines of ions such as CIV, OIV, and Si IV. In this work, it will be argued that the transition zone does not exist. Rather, the intermediate ionization states observed in the solar atmosphere should be viewed as the result of the simultaneous transfer of protons and electrons onto condensed hydrogen structures, CHS. Line emissions from ions such as CIV, OIV, and Si IV are likely to be the result of condensation reactions, manifesting the involvement of species such as CH ₄, SiH₄, H₃O⁺ in the synthesis of CHS in the chromosphere. In addition, given the presence of a true solar surface at the level of the photosphere in the liquid metallic hydrogen model, it follows that the great physical extent of the chromosphere is supported by gas pressure, much like the atmosphere of the Earth. This constitutes the thirty-fourth line of evidence that the Sun is comprised of condensed matter.

Liquid metallic hydrogen provides a compelling material for constructing a condensed matter model of the Sun and the photosphere. Like diamond, metallic hydrogen might have the potential to be a metastable substance requiring high pressures for formation. Once created, it would remain stable even at lower pressures. The metallic form of hydrogen was initially conceived in 1935 by Eugene Wigner and Hillard B. Huntington who indirectly anticipated its elevated critical temperature for liquefaction (Wigner E. and Huntington H. B. On the possibility of a metallic modification of hydrogen. J. Chem. Phys., 1935, v.3, 764–770). At that time, solid metallic hydrogen was hypothesized to exist as a body centered cubic, although a more energetically accessible layered graphite-like lattice was also envisioned. Relative to solar emission, this structural resemblance between graphite and layered metallic hydrogen should not be easily dismissed. In the laboratory, metallic hydrogen remains an elusive material. However, given the extensive observational evidence for a condensed Sun composed primarily of hydrogen, it is appropriate to consider metallic hydrogen as a solar building block. It is anticipated that solar liquid metallic hydrogen should possess at least some layered order. Since layered liquid metallic hydrogen would be essentially incompressible, its invocation as a solar constituent brings into question much of current stellar physics. The central proof of a liquid state remains the thermal spectrum of the Sun itself. Its proper understanding brings together all the great forces which shaped modern physics. Although other proofs exist for a liquid photosphere, our focus remains solidly on the generation of this light.

In this exposition, the existence of the solar surface will be briefly explored. Within the context of modern solar theory, the Sun cannot have a distinct surface. Gases are incapable of supporting such structures. The loss of a defined solar surface occurred in 1865 and can be directly attributed to Herv´e Faye (Faye H. Sur la constitution physique du soleil. Les Mondes, 1865, v.7, 293–306). Modern theory has echoed Faye affirming the absence of this vital structural element. Conversely, experimental evidence firmly supports that the Sun does indeed possess a surface. For nearly 150 years, astronomy has chosen to disregard direct observational evidence in favor of theoretical models.

Father Angelo Secchi used the existence of solar granulation as a central line of reasoning when he advanced that the Sun was a gaseous body with a photosphere containing incandescent particulate matter (Secchi A. Sulla Struttura della Fotosfera Solare. Bullettino Meteorologico dell’Osservatorio del Collegio Romano, 30 November 1864, v.3(11), 1–3). Secchi saw the granules as condensed matter emitting the photospheric spectrum, while the darkened intergranular lanes conveyed the presence of a gaseous solar interior. Secchi also considered the nature of sunspots and limb darkening. In the context of modern solar models, opacity arguments currently account for the emissive properties of the photosphere. Optical depth is thought to explain limb darkening. Both temperature variations and magnetic fields are invoked to justify the weakened emissivities of sunspots, even though the presence of static magnetic fields in materials is not usually associated with modified emissivity. Conversely, within the context of a liquid metallic hydrogen solar model, the appearance of granules, limb darkening, and sunspots can be elegantly understood through the varying directional emissivity of condensed matter. A single explanation is applicable to all three phenomena. Granular contrast can be directly associated with the generation of limb darkening. Depending on size, granules can be analyzed by considering Kolmogoroff’s formulations and Bénard convection, respectively, both of which were observed using incompressible liquids, not gases. Granules follow the 2-dimensional space filling laws of Aboav-Weiner and Lewis. Their adherence to these structural laws provides supportive evidence that the granular surface of the Sun represents elements which can only be constructed from condensed matter. A gaseous Sun cannot be confined to a 2-dimensional framework. Mesogranules, supergranules, and giant cells constitute additional entities which further support the idea of a condensed Sun. With respect to sunspots, the decrease in emissivity with increasing magnetic field strength lends powerful observational support to the idea that these structures are comprised of liquid metallic hydrogen. In this model, the inter-atomic lattice dimensions within sunspots are reduced. This increases the density and metallic character relative to photospheric material, while at the same time decreasing emissivity. Metals are well known to have lowered directional emissivities with respect to non-metals. Greater metallicity produces lower emissivity. The idea that density is increased within sunspots is supported by helioseismology. Thus, a liquid metallic hydrogen model brings with it many advantages in understanding both the emissivity of the solar surface and its vast array of structures. These realities reveal that Father Secchi, like Herbert Spencer and Gustav Kirchhoff, was correct in his insistence that condensed matter is present on the photosphere. Secchi and his contemporaries were well aware that gases are unable to impart the observed structure.

In this note, energy partition within the Sun is briefly addressed. It is argued that the laws of thermal emission cannot be directly applied to the Sun, as the continuous solar spectrum (Tapp ~6,000 K) reveals but a small fraction of the true solar energy profile. Without considering the energy linked to fusion itself, it is hypothesized that most of the photospheric energy remains trapped in the Sun’s translational degrees of freedom and associated convection currents. The Sun is known to support both convective granules and differential rotation on its surface. The emission of X-rays in association with eruptive flares and the elevated temperatures of the corona might provide some measure of these energies. At the same time, it is expected that a fraction of the solar energy remains tied to the filling of conduction bands by electrons especially within sunspots. This constitutes a degree of freedom whose importance cannot be easily assessed. The discussion highlights how little is truly understood about energy partition in the Sun.

The standard gaseous model of the Sun is grounded on the concept of local thermal equilibrium. Given this condition, Arthur Milne postulated that Kirchhoff’s law could be applied within the deep solar interior and that a blackbody spectrum could be generated in this region, based solely on equilibrium arguments. Varying internal solar opacity then ensured that a blackbody spectrum could be emitted at the photosphere. In this work, it is demonstrated that local thermal equilibrium and solar opacity arguments provide a weak framework to account for the production of the thermal spectrum. The problems are numerous, including: 1) the validity of Kirchhoff’s formulation, 2) the soundness of local thermal equilibrium arguments, 3) the requirements for understanding the elemental composition of the Sun, and 4) the computation of solar opacities. The OPAL calculations and the Opacity Project will be briefly introduced. These represent modern approaches to the thermal emission of stars. As a whole, this treatment emphasizes the dramatic steps undertaken to explain the origins of the continuous solar spectrum in the context of a gaseous Sun.

In this brief note, the implications of a condensed Sun will be examined. A celestial body composed of liquid metallic hydrogen brings great promise to astronomy, relative to understanding thermal emission and solar structure. At the same time, as an incompressible liquid, a condensed Sun calls into question virtually everything which is currently believed with respect to the evolution and nature of the stars. Should the Sun be condensed, then neutron stars and white dwarfs will fail to reach the enormous densities they are currently believed to possess. Much of cosmology also falls into question, as the incompressibility of matter curtails any thought that a primordial atom once existed. Aging stars can no longer collapse and black holes will know no formative mechanism. A condensed Sun also hints that great strides must still be made in understanding the nature of liquids. The Sun has revealed that liquids possess a much greater potential for lattice order than previously believed. In addition, lessons may be gained with regards to the synthesis of liquid metallic hydrogen and the use of condensed matter as the basis for initiating fusion on Earth.

Sunspots and faculae are related phenomena and constitute regions of elevated magnetic field intensity on the surface of the Sun. These structures have been extensively studied in the visible range. In this regard, it has been recognized that the intensity contrast of faculae, relative to the photosphere, increases considerably as the line of observation moves from the center to the limb of the Sun. Such center to limb variation (CLV) suggests that the directional spectral emissivity of the faculae increases at the same time that photospheric directional emissivity decreases. Since the directional spectral emissivity of faculae increases towards the limb, these structures, along with sunspots, provide strong evidence for metallic behavior at the level of the solar surface. This further strengthens claims that the body of the Sun is not gaseous, but rather, comprised of condensed matter.

Before a solar model becomes viable in astrophysics, one must consider how the elemental constitution of the Sun was ascertained, especially relative to its principle components: hydrogen and helium. Liquid metallic hydrogen has been proposed as a solar structural material for models based on condensed matter (e.g. Robitaille P.-M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen: A Building Block for the Liquid Sun. Progr. Phys., 2011, v. 3, 60–74). There can be little doubt that hydrogen plays a dominant role in the universe and in the stars; the massive abundance of hydrogen in the Sun was established long ago. Today, it can be demonstrated that the near isointense nature of the Sun’s Balmer lines provides strong confirmatory evidence for a distinct solar surface. The situation relative to helium remains less conclusive. Still, helium occupies a prominent role in astronomy, both as an element associated with cosmology and as a byproduct of nuclear energy generation, though its abundances within the Sun cannot be reliably estimated using theoretical approaches. With respect to the determination of helium levels, the element remains spectroscopically silent at the level of the photosphere. While helium can be monitored with ease in the chromosphere and the prominences of the corona using spectroscopic methods, these measures are highly variable and responsive to elevated solar activity and nuclear fragmentation. Direct assays of the solar winds are currently viewed as incapable of providing definitive information regarding solar helium abundances. As a result, insight relative to helium remains strictly based on theoretical estimates which couple helioseismological approaches to metrics derived from solar models. Despite their “state of the art” nature, helium estimates based on solar models and helioseismology are suspect on several fronts, including their reliance on solar opacities. The best knowledge can only come from the solar winds which, though highly variable, provide a wealth of data. Evaluations of primordial helium levels based on 1) the spectroscopic study of H-II regions and 2) microwave anisotropy data, remain highly questionable. Current helium levels, both within the stars (Robitaille J.C. and Robitaille P.-M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen III. Intercalation and Lattice Exclusion versus Gravitational Settling, and Their Consequences Relative to Internal Structure, Surface Activity, and Solar Winds in the Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, in press) and the universe at large, appear to be overstated. A careful consideration of available observational data suggests that helium abundances are considerably lower than currently believed.

Invocation of a liquid metallic hydrogen model (Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen: A Building Block for the Liquid Sun. Progr. Phys., 2011, v. 3, 60–74; Robitaille P.M. LiquidMetallic Hydrogen II: A Critical Assessment of Current and Primordial Helium Levels in Sun. Progr. Phys., 2013, v. 2, 35–47) brings with it a set of advantages for understanding solar physics which will always remain unavailable to the gaseous models. Liquids characteristically act as solvents and incorporate solutes within their often fleeting structural matrix. They possess widely varying solubility products and often reject the solute altogether. In that case, the solute becomes immiscible. “Lattice exclusion” can be invoked for atoms which attempt to incorporate themselves into liquid metallic hydrogen. In order to conserve the integrity of its conduction bands, it is anticipated that a graphite-like metallic hydrogen lattice should not permit incorporation of other elements into its in-plane hexagonal hydrogen framework. Based on the physics observed in the intercalation compounds of graphite, non-hydrogen atoms within liquid metallic hydrogen could reside between adjacent hexagonal proton planes. Consequently, the forces associated with solubility products and associated lattice exclusion envisioned in liquid metallic hydrogen for solutes would restrict gravitational settling. The hexagonal metallic hydrogen layered lattice could provide a powerful driving force for excluding heavier elements from the solar body. Herein lies a new exfoliative force to drive both surface activity (flares, coronal mass ejections, prominences) and solar winds with serious consequences relative to the p–p reaction and CNO cycle in the Sun. At the same time, the idea that non-hydrogen atomic nuclei can exist between layers of metallic hydrogen leads to a fascinating array of possibilities with respect to nucleosynthesis. Powerful parallels can be drawn to the intercalation compounds of graphite and their exfoliative forces. In this context, solar winds and activity provide evidence that the lattice of the Sun is not only excluding, but expelling helium and higher elements from the solar body. Finally, exfoliative forces could provide new mechanisms to help understand the creation of planets, satellites, red giants, and even supernova.

High energy gamma-ray flares are almost always observed near the limb of the Sun and are seldom, if ever, visualized in the central region of the solar disc. As such, they exhibit a powerful anisotropy best explained by invoking a true photospheric surface. In this regard, the anisotropic nature of the gamma-ray emissions from high-energy flares constitute the eighteenth line of evidence that the Sun is condensed matter.

In this work, the properties of the water are briefly revisited. Though liquid water has a fleeting structure, it displays an astonishingly stable network of hydrogen bonds. Thus, even as a liquid, water possesses a local lattice with short range order. The presence of hydroxyl (O-H) and hydrogen (H-OH2) bonds within water, indicate that it can simultaneously maintain two separate energy systems. These can be viewed as two very different temperatures. The analysis presented uses results from vibrational spectroscopy, extracting the force constant for the hydrogen bonded dimer. By idealizing this species as a simple diatomic structure, it is shown that hydrogen bonds within water should be able to produce thermal spectra in the far infrared and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This simple analysis reveals that the oceans have a physical mechanism at their disposal, which is capable of generating the microwave background.

In the work, the importance of assigning the microwave background to the Earth is addressed while emphasizing the consequences for global climate change. Climate models can only produce meaningful forecasts when they consider the real magnitude of all radiative processes. The oceans and continents both contribute to terrestrial emissions. However, the extent of oceanic radiation, particularly in the microwave region, raises concerns. This is not only since the globe is covered with water, but because the oceans themselves are likely to be weaker emitters than currently believed. Should the microwave background truly be generated by the oceans of the Earth, our planet would be a much less efficient emitter of radiation in this region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Furthermore, the oceans would appear unable to increase their emissions in the microwave in response to temperature elevation, as predicted by Stefan’s law. The results are significant relative to the modeling of global warming.

The COBE Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) operated from ~30 to ~3,000 GHz (1–95 cm-1) and monitored, from polar orbit (~900 km), the ~3 K microwave background. Data released from FIRAS has been met with nearly universal admiration. However, a thorough review of the literature reveals significant problems with this instrument. FIRAS was designed to function as a differential radiometer, wherein the sky signal could be nulled by the reference horn, Ical. The null point occurred at an Ical temperature of 2.759 K. This was 34 mK above the reported sky temperature, 2.725 0.001 K, a value where the null should ideally have formed. In addition, an 18 mK error existed between the thermometers in Ical, along with a drift in temperature of ~3 mK. A 5 mK error could be attributed to Xcal; while a 4 mK error was found in the frequency scale. A direct treatment of all these systematic errors would lead to a ~64 mK error bar in the microwave background temperature. The FIRAS team reported ~1 mK, despite the presence of such systematic errors. But a 1 mK error does not properly reflect the experimental state of this spectrophotometer. In the end, all errors were essentially transferred into the calibration files, giving the appearance of better performance than actually obtained. The use of calibration procedures resulted in calculated Ical emissivities exceeding 1.3 at the higher frequencies, whereas an emissivity of 1 constitutes the theoretical limit. While data from 30–60 GHz was once presented, these critical points are later dropped, without appropriate discussion, presumably because they reflect too much microwave power. Data obtained while the Earth was directly illuminating the sky antenna, was also discarded. From 300–660 GHz, initial FIRAS data had systematically growing residuals as frequencies increased. This suggested that the signal was falling too quickly in the Wien region of the spectrum. In later data releases, the residual errors no longer displayed such trends, as the systematic variations had now been absorbed in the calibration files. The FIRAS team also cited insufficient bolometer sensitivity, primarily attributed to detector noise, from 600–3,000 GHz. The FIRAS optical transfer function demonstrates that the instrument was not optimally functional beyond 1,200 GHz. The FIRAS team did not adequately characterize the FIRAS horn. Established practical antenna techniques strongly suggest that such a device cannot operate correctly over the frequency range proposed. Insufficient measurements were conducted on the ground to document antenna gain and field patterns as a full function of frequency and thereby determine performance. The effects of signal diffraction into FIRAS, while considering the Sun/Earth/RF shield, were neither measured nor appropriately computed. Attempts to establish antenna side lobe performance in space, at 1,500 GHz, are well outside the frequency range of interest for the microwave background (<600 GHz). Neglecting to fully evaluate FIRAS prior to the mission, the FIRAS team attempts to do so, on the ground, in highly limited fashion, with a duplicate Xcal, nearly 10 years after launch. All of these findings indicate that the satellite was not sufficiently tested and could be detecting signals from our planet. Diffraction of earthly signals into the FIRAS horn could explain the spectral frequency dependence first observed by the FIRAS team: namely, too much signal in the Jeans-Rayleigh region and not enough in the Wien region. Despite popular belief to the contrary, COBE has not proven that the microwave background originates from the universe and represents the remnants of creation.

Microwave reference blackbodies and targets play a key role in astrophysical and geophysical studies. The emissivity of these devices is usually inferred from return-loss experiments which may introduce at least 10 separate types of calibration errors. The origin of these inaccuracies depends on test conditions and on the nature of each target. The most overlooked errors are related to the geometry adapted in constructing reference loads and to the effects of conduction or convection. Target shape and design can create an imbalance in the probabilities of absorption and emission. This leads to loss of radiative equilibrium, despite the presence of a thermodynamic steady state. Heat losses or gains, through conduction and convection, compensate for this unexpected physical condition. The improper calibration of blackbodies and targets has implications, not only in global climate monitoring, but also relative to evaluating the microwave background

Armed with ~4K reference targets, the Planck satellite low frequency instrument (LFI) is intended to map the microwave anisotropies of the sky from the second Lagrange point, L2. Recently, the complete design and pre-flight testing of these ~4K targets has been published (Valenziano L. et al., JINST 4, 2009, T12006). The receiver chain of the LFI is based on a pseudo-correlation architecture. Consequently, the presence of a ~3K microwave background signal at L2 can be established, if the ~4K reference targets function as intended. Conversely, demonstration that the targets are unable to provide the desired emission implies that the ~3K signal cannot exist, at this location. Careful study reveals that only the second scenario can be valid. This analysis thereby provides firm evidence that the monopole of the microwave background, as initially detected by Penzias and Wilson, is being produced by the Earth itself.

In this work, results obtained by the WMAP satellite are analyzed by invoking established practices for signal acquisition and processing in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Dynamic range, image reconstruction, signal to noise, resolution, contrast, and reproducibility are specifically discussed. WMAP images do not meet accepted standards in medical imaging research. WMAP images are obtained by attempting to remove a galactic foreground contamination which is 1,000 times more intense than the desired signal. Unlike water suppression in biological NMR, this is accomplished without the ability to affect the signal at the source and without a priori knowledge. Resulting WMAP images have an exceedingly low signal to noise (maximum 1–2) and are heavily governed by data processing. Final WMAP internal linear combination (ILC) images are made from 12 section images. Each of these, in turn, is processed using a separate linear combination of data. The WMAP team extracts cosmological implications from their data, while ignoring that the ILC coefficients do not remain constant from year to year. In contrast to standard practices in medicine, difference images utilized to test reproducibility are presented at substantially reduced resolution. ILC images are not presented for year two and three. Rather, year-1 data is signal averaged in a combined 3-year data set. Proper tests of reproducibility require viewing separate yearly ILC images. Fluctuations in the WMAP images arise from the inability to remove the galactic foreground, and in the significant yearly variations in the foreground itself. Variations in the map outside the galactic plane are significant, preventing any cosmological analysis due to yearly changes. This occurs despite the masking of more than 300 image locations. It will be advanced that any “signal” observed by WMAP is the result of foreground effects, not only from our galaxy, but indeed yearly variations from every galaxy in the Universe. Contrary to published analysis, the argument suggests there are only questionable findings in the anisotropy images, other than those related to image processing, yearly galactic variability, and point sources. Concerns are also raised relative to the validity of assigning brightness temperatures in this setting.

The powerful “Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)” signal currently associated with the origins of the Universe is examined from a historical perspective and relative to the experimental context in which it was measured. Results from the COBE satellite are reviewed, with particular emphasis on the systematic error observed in determining the CMB temperature. The nature of the microwave signal emanating from the oceans is also discussed. From this analysis, it is demonstrated that it is improper for the COBE team to model the Earth as a 285K blackbody source. The assignment of temperatures to objects that fail to meet the requirements set forth in Kirchhoff’s law constitutes a serious overextension of the laws of thermal emission. Using this evidence, and the general rule that powerful signals are associated with proximal sources, the CMB monopole signal is reassigned to the oceans. In turn, through the analysis of COBE, WMAP, and Relikt-1 data, the dipole signal is attributed to motion through a much weaker microwave field present both at the position of the Earth and at the second Lagrange point.

In this work, a liquid model of the Sun is presented wherein the entire solar mass is viewed as a high density/high energy plasma. This model challenges our current understanding of the densities associated with the internal layers of the Sun, advocating a relatively constant density, almost independent of radial position. The incompressible nature of liquids is advanced to prevent solar collapse from gravitational forces. The liquid plasma model of the Sun is a non-equilibrium approach, where nuclear reactions occur throughout the solar mass. The primary means of addressing internal heat transfer are convection and conduction. As a result of the convective processes on the solar surface, the liquid model brings into question the established temperature of the solar photosphere by highlighting a violation of Kirchhoff’s law of thermal emission. Along these lines, the model also emphasizes that radiative emission is a surface phenomenon. Evidence that the Sun is a high density/high energy plasma is based on our knowledge of Planckian thermal emission and condensed matter, including the existence of pressure ionization and liquid metallic hydrogen at high temperatures and pressures. Prior to introducing the liquid plasma model, the historic and scientific justifications for the gaseous model of the Sun are reviewed and the gaseous equations of state are also discussed.

The absorption and scattering of microwave radiation by the atmosphere of the Earth is considered under a steady state scenario. Using this approach, it is demonstrated that the microwave background could not have a cosmological origin. Scientific observations in the microwave region are explained by considering an oceanic source, combined with both Rayleigh and Mie scattering in the atmosphere in the absence of net absorption. Importantly, at high frequencies, Mie scattering occurs primarily with forward propagation. This helps to explain the lack of high frequency microwave background signals when radio antennae are positioned on the Earth’s surface.

In this work, the nature of the microwave background is discussed. It is advanced that the 2.725 K monopole signal, first detected by Penzias and Wilson, originates from the Earth and therefore cannot be detected at the Lagrange 2 point (L2). Results obtained by the COBE, Relikt-1, and WMAP satellites are briefly reviewed. Attention is also placed on the upcoming PLANCK mission, with particular emphasis on the low frequency instrument (LFI). Since the LFI on PLANCK can operate both in absolute mode and in difference mode, this instrument should be able to unequivocally resolve any question relative to the origin of the 2.725K monopole signal. The monopole will be discovered to originate from the Earth and not from the Cosmos. This will have implications relative to the overall performance of the PLANCK satellite, in particular, and for the future of astrophysics, in general.

In this work, the presence of substantial microwave power in the atmosphere of the Earth is discussed. It is advanced that this atmospheric microwave power constitutes pools of scattered photons initially produced, at least in substantial part, by the ~3K microwave background. The existence of these microwave pools of photons can serve to explain how the Earth, as an anisotropic source, is able to produce an Earth Microwave Background (EMB) at ~3K which is isotropic.

Our Sun has confronted humanity with overwhelming evidence that it is comprised of condensed matter. Dismissing this reality, the standard solar models continue to be anchored on the gaseous plasma. In large measure, the endurance of these theories can be attributed to 1) the mathematical elegance of the equations for the gaseous state, 2) the apparent success of the mass-luminosity relationship, and 3) the long-lasting influence of leading proponents of these models. Unfortunately, no direct physical finding supports the notion that the solar body is gaseous. Without exception, all observations are most easily explained by recognizing that the Sun is primarily comprised of condensed matter. However, when a physical characteristic points to condensed matter, \textit{a postori} arguments are invoked to account for the behavior using the gaseous state. In isolation, many of these treatments appear plausible. As a result, the gaseous models continue to be accepted. There seems to be an overarching belief in solar science that the problems with the gaseous models are few and inconsequential. In reality, they are numerous and, while often subtle, they are sometimes daunting. The gaseous equations of state have introduced far more dilemmas than they have solved. Many of the conclusions derived from these approaches are likely to have led solar physics down unproductive avenues, as deductions have been accepted which bear little or no relationship to the actual nature of the Sun. It could be argued that, for more than 100 years, the gaseous models have prevented mankind from making real progress relative to understanding the Sun and the universe. Hence, the Sun is now placed on trial. Forty lines of evidence will be presented that the solar body is comprised of, and surrounded by, condensed matter. These `proofs' can be divided into seven broad categories: 1) Planckian, 2) spectroscopic, 3) structural, 4) dynamic, 5) helioseismic, 6) elemental, and 7) earthly. Collectively, these lines of evidence provide a systematic challenge to the gaseous models of the Sun and expose the many hurdles faced by modern approaches. Observational astronomy and laboratory physics have remained unable to properly justify claims that the solar body must be gaseous. At the same time, clear signs of condensed matter interspersed with gaseous plasma in the chromosphere and corona have been regrettably dismissed. As such, it is hoped that this exposition will serve as an invitation to consider condensed matter, especially metallic hydrogen, when pondering the phase of the Sun.

The stellar equations of state treat the Sun much like an ideal gas, wherein the photosphere is viewed as a sparse gaseous plasma. The temperatures inferred in the solar interior give some credence to these models, especially since it is counterintuitive that an object with internal temperatures in excess of 1 MK could be existing in the liquid state. Nonetheless, extreme temperatures, by themselves, are insufficient evidence for the states of matter. The presence of magnetic fields and gravity also impact the expected phase. In the end, it is the physical expression of a state that is required in establishing the proper phase of an object. The photosphere does not lend itself easily to treatment as a gaseous plasma. The physical evidence can be more simply reconciled with a solar body and a photosphere in the condensed state. A discussion of each physical feature follows: (1) the thermal spectrum, (2) limb darkening, (3) solar collapse, (4) the solar density, (5) seismic activity, (6) mass displacement, (7) the chromosphere and critical opalescence, (8) shape, (9) surface activity, (10) photospheric/coronal flows, (11) photospheric imaging, (12) the solar dynamo, and (13) the presence of Sun spots. The explanation of these findings by the gaseous models often requires an improbable combination of events, such as found in the stellar opacity problem. In sharp contrast, each can be explained with simplicity by the condensed state. This work is an invitation to reconsider the phase of the Sun.

Galaxies are the basic components of the universe. A massive Hubble Space Telescope photos survey reveals that the diversity of galaxies in the early universe was as varied as the many galaxy types seen today. Therefore, understanding galaxies is the great challenge to humans. This paper deals with the disk-typed galaxies which is called spirals. In longer wavelength image, galaxy arms are mostly gone, and spiral galaxies fall to two types: ordinary and barred. The ordinary ones are basically an axi-symmetric disk whose stellar density decreases exponentially outwards. It is called the exponential disk. It is straightforward to show that any exponential disk has infinite nets of orthogonal curves such that the stellar density on one side of each curve is in constant ratio to the density on the other side of the curve. These curves are call proportion curves or Darwin curves. It happens that the Darwin curves of exponential disk are all golden spirals. Amazingly, astronomers found out that the arms of ordinary spiral galaxies are all golden spirals. Therefore, I had a proposition in 2004 that a two dimensional structure is called a rational one if there exists at least one orthogonal net of Darwin curves in the structure plane. Now in this paper, the mathematical solution to rational structure is completely obtained. We prove that rational structure is unique.

Newton's understanding of solar system opened a new era of human civilization. Accordingly, the understanding of galaxies will stimulate a new period of human social harmony. Galaxies are the most independent components of the universe. A massive Hubble Space Telescope photos survey reveals that the diversity of galaxies in the early universe was as varied as the many galaxy types seen today. In 2001, I proposed the rational model of galaxy structure. Now in this paper I present a preliminary rational structure theory. The mathematical background needed is no more than the preliminary results of traditional college courses of complex functions and partial differential equations. Its application to barred galaxies is discussed. If the application is successful then three simple and important examples of its testification are, the structural simulation of barred galaxy light distribution with rational structure, the simulation of spiral arms with the Darwin curves of rational structure, and the simulation of observational galaxy kinematics (e.g., rotation curves) with the New Universal Gravity dictated by the rational structure and the principle of force line conservation.

It is considered unpromising today to study huge interval between nucleus and atom external shell, so called femtoregion, spread from nanometers to femtometers. But without knowledge of atoms spatial structure and their fields it is impossible to construct molecules correctly, and to build nanoobjects further. Femtotechnologies have to lay down in a theoretical basis of nanotechnologies without which development of applied researches is impossible. In work the femtoregion of the simplyest element, atom of hydrogen, is considered. It is shown that the electron in atom of hydrogen has the difficult spatial structure taking which into account allows to specify fundamental constants, such as a constant of thin structure, the speed of light, Bohr radius of an electron. It is shown that on the basis of these constants it is possible to construct the fundamental scales scaling both internal and external fields of atoms. It allows to formulate macroquantum laws that govern the Universe. It means that without research atoms femtoregion it is impossible to eliminate an abyss which arose between gravitation and electromagnetism. It is shown that our model removes a number of theoretical contradictions and is perfectly confirmed by the last astrophysical experiments.

According to Western religion, galaxies are designed by the Creator. Dr. Jin He found many evidences that galaxies are rational distribution of stars. Rational structure in two dimension means that not only there exists an orthogonal net of curves in the plane but also, for each curve, the stellar density on one side of the curve is in constant ratio to the density on the other side of the curve. Such a curve is called a proportion curve or a Darwin curve. Such a distribution of matter is called a rational structure. There are plenty of evidences for rational galaxy structure. We list a few examples. Firstly, galaxy stellar distribution can be fitted to rational structure. Secondly, spiral arms can be fitted to Darwin curves. Thirdly, rational structure dictates New Universal Gravity which explains constant rotation curves elegantly. However, there has been no systematic study on rational structure. This letter presents a general partial differential equation whose solution must be rational structure. Also given in the letter is the geometric meaning of the equation. The general solution to the equation is called the Creator's open quest for humans which has not been answered yet.

New Universal Gravity: To any point on a rational structure, there correspond three proportion surfaces which pass the point and are orthogonal to each other. To any proportion surface there exists the corresponding component of the gravitational force at the point whose direction is normal to the surface (pointing to the larger matter density) and whose magnitude is proportional to the Gaussian curvature of the surface at the point and proportional to the total mass contained in the closed surface. The new gravity generalizes Newtonian theory and gives a unified explanation to both discrete and smooth natural structures (i.e., Solar system and galaxies). It is the inevitable truth of nature if gravity must satisfy divergence theorem and galaxies must be rational structure.

Newton discovered the dynamic law of universal gravity, based on his principles of kinetic physics and Kepler's three laws of planetary motion in the Solar system. However, astronomers observed larger material systems in the universe that are galaxies. If Newton's theory was applicable to galaxies then stars would rotate around the galaxy center at a speed decreasing with the distance from the center. However, astronomical observation shows that the speed is constant regardless of the distance. This is called the problem of constant rotational curves. It is the dark cloud hanging over twentieth century physics. Fortunately, Dr. Jin He found out that the observational galaxy structure is rational. This suggests Jin He might be a modern Kepler. In this article we present Cylindrical Conjecture on galaxy force field based on Jin He's observational result. The conjecture simply proves constant rotational curves. We are looking for a modern Newton who will develop the conjecture into a systematic theory on galaxy dynamics, be the conjecture a cosmic truth.

Friends: Whenever feeling happy, sad, or dangerous, remember two things. First, scientific experiments continue to show that human experience is derived from the creation of natural structure. For example, love, disease, and mental worries are the origin of the creation of microscopic structure. Second, the products of human's creation is based on the natural one. That is, the products are the second creation to the natural one. For example, the toys which children are fond of, are the creation based on Earth's resources and deposits while the meaning the toys transfer is originated from human's feelings for the motion of natural structure. However, scientists do not know what is the origin of the natural creation. Laurent Nottale is the first person in human history who gave the fundamental explanation to the natural creation of Solar system, based on his theory of Scale Relativity. This paper is the study on the natural creation of galaxies. For a planar distribution of matter, Jin He and Bo He defined Darwin curves on the plane as such that the ratio of the matter densities at both sides of the curve is constant along the curve. Therefore, the arms of ordinary spiral galaxies are Darwin curves. Now an important question facing humans is that: Are the arms of barred spiral galaxies the Darwin curves too? Fortunately, Dr. Jin He made a piece of Galaxy Anatomy Graphic Software (www.galaxyanatomy.com). With the software, not only can people simulate the stellar density distribution of barred spiral galaxies but also can draw the Darwin curves of the simulated galaxy structure. Therefore, if Dr. Jin He's idea is true then people all over the world will witness the evidence that the arms of barred spiral galaxies are identical to the corresponding Darwin curves. This paper shows partial evidence that the arms of galaxy NGC 5921 follow Darwin curves.

The proposed model is based on J.Wheeler’s geometrodynamic concept, in which space continuum is considered as a topologically non-unitary coherent surface admitting the existence of transitions of the input-output kind between distant regions of the space in an additional dimension. The existence of closed structures (macrocontours) formed at the expense of interbalance of gravitational, electric, magnetic and inertial forces has been substantiated. It is such macrocontours that have been demonstrated to form — independently of their material basis — the essential structure of stellar objects (SO) and to determine the position of these objects on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Models of the characteristic types of stellar objects: stars and compact bodies emerging in the end of stellar evolution — have been presented, and their standard parameters at different stages of evolution have been calculated. The existence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram has been substantiated, and its computational analogue has been given. Parallels between stellar and microcosmic objects are drawn.

It may be true that mankind’s hope is the identification of the living meaning of natural structures. However, scientists including physicists, chemists, and biologists have not found any evidence of the meaning. In the natural world, there exists one kind of structure which is beyond the scope of human laboratorial experiment. It is the structure of galaxies. Spiral galaxies are flat disk-shaped. There are two types of spiral galaxies. The spiral galaxies with some bar-shaped pattern are called barred spirals, and the ones without the pattern are called ordinary spirals. Longer-wavelength galaxy images (infrared, for example) show that ordinary spiral galaxies are basically an axi-symmetric disk that is called exponential disk. For a planar distribution of matter, Jin He and Bo He defined Darwin curves on the plane as such that the ratio of the matter densities at both sides of the curve is constant along the curve. Therefore, the arms of ordinary spiral galaxies are Darwin curves. Now an important question facing humans is that: Are the arms of barred spiral galaxies the Darwin curves too? Fortunately, Dr. Jin He made a piece of Galaxy Anatomy Graphic Software (www.galaxyanatomy.com). With the software, not only can people simulate the stellar density distribution of barred spiral galaxies but also can draw the Darwin curves of the simulated galaxy structure. Therefore, if Dr. Jin He's idea is true then people all over the world will witness the evidence that the arms of barred spiral galaxies are identical to the corresponding Darwin curves. This paper shows partial evidence that the arms of galaxy NGC 4548 follow Darwin curves. Note: Dr. Philip Gibbs is the founder of viXra.org. Jin He has been jobless and denied any possibility of postdoc position since 2005. Jin He has been rejected by arXiv.org or even by PhysicsForums.com since 2006 and 2007 respectively. Philip Gibbs's eprint archive is the only channel with which Jin He can connect to the human world.

The paramount British-Led May, 29, 1919 Solar Eclipse Result of Eddington et al. has had tremendous if not an arcane effect in persuading scientists, philosophers and the general public, to accept Einstein's esoteric General Theory of Relativity (GTR) thereby ``deserting" Newtonian gravitation altogether, especially in physical domains of extreme gravitation where Einstein's GTR is thought or believed to reign supreme. The all-crucial factor ``2" predicted by Einstein's GTR has been ``verified" by subsequent measurements, more so by the most impressive and precision modern technology of VLBA measurements using cosmological radio waves to within 99.998\% accuracy. From within the most well accepted provinces, confines and domains of Newtonian gravitational theory, herein, we demonstrate that the gravitational to inertial mass ratio of photons in Newtonian gravitational theory where the identities of the inertial and gravitational mass are preserved, the resulting theory is very much compatible with all measurements made of the gravitational bending of light. Actually, this approach posits that these measurements of the gravitational bending of light not only confirm the gravitational bending of electromagnetic waves, but that, on a much more subtler level; rather clandestinely, these measurements are in actual fact a measurement of the gravitational to inertial mass ratio of photons. The significant 20% scatter seen in the measurements where white-starlight is used, according to the present thesis, this scatter is seen to imply that the gravitational to inertial ratio of photons may very well be variable quantity such that for radio waves, this quantity must -- to within 99.998% accuracy, be unity. We strongly believe that the findings of the present reading demonstrate or hint to a much deeper reality that the gravitational and inertial mass, may -- after all; not be equal as we have come to strongly believe. With great prudence, it is safe to say that, this rather disturbing (perhaps exciting) conclusion, if correct; may direct us to closely re-examine the validity of Einstein's central tenant -- the embellished Equivalence Principle (EP), which stands as the strongest and most complete embodiment of the foundational basis of Einstein's beautiful and celebrated GTR.

It may be true that mankind's hope is the identification of the living meaning of natural structures. However, scientists including physicists, chemists, and biologists have not found any evidence of the meaning. In the natural world, there exists one kind of structure which is beyond the scope of human laboratorial experiment. It is the structure of galaxies. Spiral galaxies are flat disk-shaped. There are two types of spiral galaxies. The spiral galaxies with some bar-shaped pattern are called barred spirals, and the ones without the pattern are called ordinary spirals. Longer-wavelength galaxy images (infrared, for example) show that ordinary spiral galaxies are basically an axi-symmetric disk that is called exponential disk. For a planar distribution of matter, Jin He and Bo He defined Darwin curves on the plane as such that the ratio of the matter densities at both sides of the curve is constant along the curve. Therefore, the arms of ordinary spiral galaxies are Darwin curves. Now an important question facing humans is that: Are the arms of barred spiral galaxies the Darwin curves too? Fortunately, Dr. Jin He made a piece of Galaxy Anatomy Graphic Software (www.galaxyanatomy.com). With the software, not only can people simulate the stellar density distribution of barred spiral galaxies but also can draw the Darwin curves of the simulated galaxy structure. Therefore, if Dr. Jin He's idea is true then people all over the world will witness the evidence that the arms of barred spiral galaxies are identical to the corresponding Darwin curves. This paper shows partial evidence that the arms of galaxy NGC 3275 follow Darwin curves. Note: Ammar Sakaji and Ignazio Licata are the founder or the editor-in-chief of the Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics. Over fifty journals of astronomy and physics had rejected Dr. Jin He's core article on galaxy structure before 2010. It is Sakaji and Licata's journal that accepted the article.

Exactly 100 years ago, German scientist Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930), sailed against the prevailing wisdom of his day when he posited that not only have the Earth's continental plates receded from each other over the course of the Earth's history, but that they are currently in a state of motion relative to one another. To explain this, Wegener setforth the hypothesis that the Earth must be expanding as a whole. Wegener's inability to provide an adequate explanation of the forces and energy source responsible for continental drift and the prevailing belief that the Earth was a rigid solid body resulted in the acrimonious dismissal of his theories. Today, that the continents are receding from each other is no longer a point of debate but a sacrosanct pillar of modern geophysics. What is debatable is the energy source driving this phenomenon. Herein, we hold that continental drift is a result of the Earth undergoing a secular radial expansion. An expanding Earth hypothesis is currently an idea that is not accepted on a general consensus level. Be that it may, we show herein that the law of conversation of angular momentum and energy entail that the Earth must not only expand as a consequence of the secular recession of the Earth-Moon system from the Sun, but invariably, that the Moon must contract as-well. As a result, the much sort for energy source driving plate tectonics can (hypothetically) be identified with the energy transfers occurring between the orbital and rotational kinetic energy of the Earth. If our calculations are to be believed -- as we do; then, the Earth must be expanding radially at a paltry rate of about 1.50+/-mm/yr while the Moon is contracting radially at a relatively high rate of about -410+/- mm/yr.

In this paper, we attempt to present physical vacuum as a topologically non-unitary coherent surface. This representation follows with J.A.Wheeler’s idea about fluctuating topology, and provides a possibility to express some parameters of the unit space element through the fundamental constants. As a result, we determined the ultimate density of physical vacuum without use of Hubble’s constant.

It may be agreed by most people that the growth of each person or country is driven by the power of gender. However, human's understanding of gender origin is very little, and is solely based on the phenomenon of life on Earth. If humans raise up their head and look at the universe, its preliminary answer may emerge. In the history of mankind, the first person who was surprised at the look of cosmic gender is possibly the famous French scientist Henri Poincare. He, at the conclusion of the preface to his book, `Hyptheses Cosmogoniques', states ``One fact that strikes everyone is the spiral shape of some nebulae; it is encountered much too often for us to believe that it is due to chance. It is easy to understand how incomplete any theory of cosmogony which ignores this fact must be. None of the theories accounts for it satisfactorily, and the explanation I myself once gave, in a kind of toy theory, is no better than the others. Consequently, we come up against a big question mark.'' Now that humans enter the era of twenty-first century, Dr. Jin He, based on sufficient evidences, shows that the spiral pattern of galaxies is the male character of the universe.

In this paper we examine the recently introduced Dvali-Gabadadze-Porrati (DGP) gravity model. We use a space-time metric in which the local gravitation source dominates the metric over the contributions from the cosmological flow. Anticipating ideal possible solar system effects, we derive expressions for the signal time delays in the vicinity of the Sun. and for various ranges of the angle θ of the signal approach, The time contribution due to DGP correction to the metric is found to be proportional to b3/2/c2r0. For r0 equal to 5 Mpc and θ in the range [−π/3,π/3], t is equal to 0.0001233 ps. This delay is extremely small to be measured by today’s technology but it could be probably measurable by future experiments.

Since the birth of mankind, human beings have been looking for the origin of life. The fact that human history is the history of warfare and cannibalism proves that humans have not identified their origin. Humanity is still in the dark phase of lower animals. Humans can see the phenomenon of life only on Earth, and humans' vision does not exceed the one of lower animals. However, it is a fact that human beings have inherited the most advanced gene of life. Humans should be able to answer the following questions: Is the Universe hierarchical? What is Heaven? Is Heaven the origin of life? Is Heaven a higher order of life? For more than a decade, I have done an in-depth study on barred galaxy structure. Today (September 17, 2012) I suddenly discovered that the characteristic structure of barred spiral galaxies resembles the breasts of human female essentially. If the rational structure conjecture presented in the article is proved then Sun must be a mirror of the universe, and mankind is exactly the image on earth of the Heaven.

Humans have recognized the natural entity of galaxies for over ninety years. Dr. He initiated the concept of rational structure and applied it to the study of galaxy structure in 2001. The main reason is that galaxy arms trace their way on the galaxy disk plane elegantly so that the ratio of stellar density on the left side of the route to the one on the right is constant along the way. This is comparable to the elegant principle of natural selection. From now on, we call galaxy arms 'Darwin spirals' or 'Darwin curves' instead of calling them 'iso-ratio curves' or 'proportion curves'. If Dr. He's study is proved to be truth, then galaxy arms must be the disturbance to rational structure. The disturbance generates dust and gas which nurture human lives. This might be a clue to the important issue of life origin.

Discussion of a joint DM and DE model if massive gravitons are stable. Presented at Dark side of the Universe in Leon, Mexico, 2010, represented here due to inexplicable non publishing of conference proceedings for DSU 2010, of Leon, Mexico. Kaluza Klein treatment of graviton leads to DM and if there exists massive gravitons up to the present day, contributions to DE are presented. The caveat being if the graviton with a slight rest mass can be a stable particle.

The Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) measurements of Sunlight indicate that the Sun's SED is approximately that of a black body at a temperature of about 5777K. This fact has been known for quite some time now. What is surprising is that this fact has not been interpreted correctly to mean that the Sun's temperature is constant throughout its profile i.e. the temperature of the core right up to the Surface must be the same i.e. if Tsun(r) the temperature of the Sun at any radial point r, then Tsun(r)=5777K. From the fundamental principles of statistical thermodynamics, a blackbody is a body whose constituents are all at a constant temperature and such a body will exhibit a Planckian SED. For a body that has a nearly blackbody SED like the Sun (and the stars), this means the constituents of this body must, at a reasonable degree of approximation, be at the same temperature i.e. its temperature must be constant throughout. If the Sun is approximately a blackbody as experience indicates, then, the Standard Solar Model (SSM) can not be a correct description of physical and natural reality for the one simple reason, that the Solar core must be at same temperature as the Solar surface. Simple, the Sun is not hot enough to ignite thermonuclear fission at its nimbus. If this is the case, then how does the Sun (and the stars) generate its luminosity. A suggestion to this problem is made in a future reading that is at an advanced stage of preparation; therein, it is proposed that the Sun is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium -- i.e., in a state of uniform temperature and further a proposal (hypothesis or conjecture) is set-forth that the Sun may very well be powered by the 104.17 micro-Hz gravitational oscillations first detected by Brookes el al. (1976), Severny et al. (1976). Herein, we verily prove that the SED of a body in hydrostatic equilibrium can not, in general be Planckian in nature, thus ruling out the SSM in its current constitution. Only in the case were the density index is \alpha_{\varrho}=2 (which implies a zero temperature index i.e. \alpha_{T}=0$), will the SED of such a body be Planckian.

<p>Vast amounts of data clearly demonstrate discrepancies between the observed dynamics, in large astronomical systems, and the predicted dynamics by Newtonian gravity and general relativity. The appearance of these discrepancies has two possible explanations: either these systems contain large quantities of a new kind of unseen matter −the Dark Matter (DM)− or the gravitational law has to be modified at this scale −as in MOdified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)−. This dichotomy is not entirely new in the history of physics, with DM playing now the role of the old non-existent Vulcan planet.</p> <p>We have shown how both (<span style="font-weight: bold;">i</span>) the MONDian form and (<span style="font-weight: bold;">ii</span>) <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Milgrom</span> acceleration follow from an extended theory of gravity −characterized by a new kind of gravitational potentials <i>h_μν</i>(<i>R</i>(<i>t</i>))−, which (<span style="font-weight: bold;">iii</span>) was initially aimed to solve those deficiencies of general relativity shared with classical electrodynamics −and that were previously solved with new electromagnetic potentials <i>Φ</i>(<i>R</i>(<i>t</i>)) and <span style="font-weight: bold;"><i>A</i></span>(<i>R</i>(<i>t</i>))−. We also show (<span style="font-weight: bold;">iv</span>) how the modified equation of motion can be cast into ordinary form, when an fictitious distribution of DM matter is added to the real mass. From our definition of DM, we obtain (<span style="font-weight: bold;">v</span>) the main properties traditionally attributed to it, in excellent agreement with the DM literature. Finally, (<span style="font-weight: bold;">vi</span>) we discuss further avenues of research opened by this new paradigm.</p>

The recent experimental findings have shown that our understanding of the solar system is surprisingly fragmentary. As a matter fact, so fragmentary that even new physics might find place in the description of phenomena like the precession of equinoxes and the recent discoveries about the bullet like shape of heliosphere and strong magnetic fields near its boundary bringing in mind incompressible fluid flow around obstacle. TGD inspired model is based on the heuristic idea that stars are like pearls in a necklace defined by long magnetic flux tubes carrying dark matter and strong magnetic field responsible for dark energy and possibly accompanied by the analog of solar wind. Heliosphere would be like bubble in the flow defined by the magnetic field inside the flux tube inducing its local thickening. A possible interpretation is as a bubble of ordinary and dark matter in the flux tube containing dark energy. This would provide a beautiful overall view about the emergence of stars and their helio-spheres as a phase transition transforming dark energy to dark and visible matter. Among other things the magnetic walls surrounding the solar system would shield the solar system from cosmic rays.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the seventh galaxy (NGC 5921) that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the sixth galaxy (NGC 5701) that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the fifth galaxy (NGC 4930) that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the third galaxy NGC 6782 that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the fourth galaxy NGC 4665 that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always are. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the second galaxy NGC 4548 that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

Weakly interacted galaxies present very simple body structure. They are either three-dimensional objects resembling ellipsoids or flat-shaped disks showing spiral disturbance. Elliptical galaxies present little dust and gas but spiral galaxies demonstrate arms and rings which are characterized by containing a huge amount of dust and gas. Since arms and rings are linear-shaped, the body structure of spiral galaxies may be a textured one as earth-bound materials always do. This led to the concept of rational structure which is based on proportion curves. The proportion curves for normal spiral galaxies are all equiangular spirals which trace or cut through arms consistently. This paper demonstrates the spider-shaped proportion curves for barred spiral galaxies. It shows for the galaxy NGC 3275 that the curves do trace or cut through arms or rings consistently. More examples of barred galaxies will be studied for the testification of Nature�s rationality.

The concept of rational structure was suggested in 2000. A flat material distribution is called the rational structure if there exists a special net of orthogonal curves on the plane, and the ratio of mass density at one side of a curve (from the net) to the one at the other side is constant along the curve. Such curve is called a proportion curve. Such net of curves is called an orthogonal net of proportion curves. Eleven years have passed and a rational sufficient condition for given material distribution is finally obtained. This completes the mathematical basis for the study of rational structure and its galaxy application. People can fit the stellar distribution of a barred spiral galaxy with exponential disk and dual-hand structure by varying their parameter values. If the conjecture is proved that barred galaxies satisfy a rational suffcient condition then the assumption of galaxy rational origin will be established.

The English naturalist Charles Darwin established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. In fact, Darwin theory dealt with the evolutional phenomena of the biosphere, not its origins. Further more, there exist the natural worlds other than our beloved one. Compared to the large-scale structure of galaxies, the biosphere is �microscopic�. The electromagnetic and nuclear forces which rule the world disappear in the formation of large-scale galaxy structure. Similarly they disappear in the formation of the solar system. My previous papers showed that large-scale galaxy structure originates rationally from an algebraic cubic equation. This paper presents the nature�s selection of the cubic roots and its application to the galaxy NGC 3275.

In Newtonian gravitational physics, as currently understood, the spin of a gravitating body has no effect on the nature of the gravitational field emergent from this gravitating body. This position has been questioned by the Azimuthally Symmetric Theory of Gravitation (ASTG-model; in Nyambuya $2010$). From the ASTG-model -- which is a theory resulting from the consideration of the azimuthally symmetric solutions of the well known and well accepted Poisson-Laplace equation for gravitation, it has been argued that it is possible to explain the unexpected perihelion shift of Solar planetary orbits. However, as it stands in the present, the ASTG-model suffers from the apparent diabolic defect that there are unknown parameters ($\lambda$'s) in the theory that up to now have not been able to be adequately deduced from theory. If this defect is not taken care of, it would consume the theory altogether, bringing it to a complete standstill, to nothing but an obsolete theory. Effort in resolving this defect has been made in the genesis reading of the theory \textit{i.e.} in \cite{nyambuya10a}. This initial effort in trying to resolve this problem is not complete. In this short reading, we present what we believe is a significant improvement to the resolution of this problem. If this effort proves itself correct, then the ASTG-model is set on a sure pedal to make predictions without having to relay on observations to deduce these unknown parameters. Other than resolving the $\lambda$-parameter problem, this reading is designed to serve as an exposition of the ASTG-model as it currently stands.

What is human life? From the material sense, it is a material structure composed of oxygen, carbon and other atoms. From the biological point of view, it is a kind of advanced animal that understands the natural world, recognizes and creates products. In the last tens of thousands of years, human beings created languages and tools, and achieved a near-perfect understanding of the microscopic world of elementary particles. However, in the 21st century, mankind has experienced irreversible crises such as environmental pollution, erratic weather, food shortage, and population explosion. However, the crisis is also an opportunity. In the complexity of this world, a Chinese scientist opened a window for the understanding of human beings ourselves as well as the universe. The Earth is the direct environment for the survival of human life, but the root cause of human creation is Milky Way. Surprisingly enough, the life of galaxies is determined by a cubic algebraic equation. Therefore, the general public all have the potential to understand the lives of galaxies. Coincidentally, with human invention of computers, the general public has the potential to run the simple computer program (See Appendix of this paper) to generate and study galaxy snowflake chart (a simple graph expressing the internal structure of galaxies). Therefore, we see the hope of mankind: A harmonic general-public administrated society of new civilization rather than controlled by a few elites, will inevitably be born!

Everyone lives his or her life instinctively. Does the instinct originate from the natural world? If the instinct is a rational process, is the natural world rational? Unfortunately, people have not found any rational principle behind the natural world. Because human activities are realized directly through electromagnetic and nuclear forces of entropy-increase, people are difficult to recognize the principle. Compared to the large-scale structure of galaxies, human bodies and their immediate environment are the �microscopic� world. The electromagnetic and nuclear forces which rule the world, however, disappear in the formation of large-scale galaxy structures. Similarly they disappear in the formation of the solar system. My previous papers found many evidences that galaxies are rational. This paper shows that large-scale galaxy structure must originate from an algebraic cubic equation.

The tetron model is reinterpreted as an inner symmetry lattice model where quarks, leptons and gauge fields arise as lattice excitations. On this basis a modification of the standard Big Bang scenario is proposed, where the advent of a spacetime manifold is connected to the appearance of a permutation lattice. The metric tensor is constructed from lattice excitations and a possible reason for cosmic inflation is elucidated. Furthermore, there are natural dark matter candidates in the tetron model. The ratio of ordinary to dark matter in the universe is estimated to be 1:5.

In the present article we would like to make a few comments on a recent paper by A. Yefremov in this journal [1]. It is interesting to note here that he concludes his analysis by pointing out that using full machinery of Quaternion Relativity it is possible to explain Pioneer XI anomaly with excellent agreement compared with observed data, and explain around 45% of Pioneer X anomalous acceleration. We argue that perhaps it will be necessary to consider extension of Lorentz transformation to Finsler-Berwald metric, as discussed by a number of authors in the past few years. In this regard, it would be interesting to see if the use of extended Lorentz transformation could also elucidate the long-lasting problem known as Ehrenfest paradox. Further observation is of course recommended in order to refute or verify this proposition.

In recent years, there are attempts to describe quantization of planetary distance based on time-independent gravitational Schrödinger equation, including Rubcic & Rubcic's method and also Nottale's Scale Relativity method. Nonetheless, there is no solution yet for time-dependent gravitational Schrödinger equation (TDGSE). In the present paper, a numerical solution of time-dependent gravitational Schrödinger equation is presented, apparently for the first time. This numerical solution leads to gravitational Bohr-radius, as expected. In the subsequent section, we also discuss plausible extension of this gravitational Schrödinger equation to include the effect of phion condensate via Gross-Pitaevskii equation, as described recently by Moffat. Alternatively one can consider this condensate from the viewpoint of Bogoliubov-deGennes theory, which can be approximated with coupled time-independent gravitational Schrödinger equation. Further observation is of course recommended in order to refute or verify this proposition.

There have been various explanations of Pioneer blueshift anomaly in the past few years; nonetheless no explanation has been offered from the viewpoint of Q-relativity physics. In the present paper it is argued that Pioneer anomalous blueshift may be caused by Pioneer spacecraft experiencing angular shift induced by similar Qrelativity effect which may also affect Jupiter satellites. By taking into consideration "aether drift" effect, the proposed method as described herein could explain Pioneer blueshift anomaly within ~ 0.26% error range, which speaks for itself. Another new proposition of redshift quantization is also proposed from gravitational Bohr-radius which is consistent with Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization. Further observation is of course recommended in order to refute or verify this proposition.

General Relativity predicts the existence of relativistic corrections to the static Newtonian potential which can be calculated and verified experimentally. The idea leading to quantum corrections at large distances is that of the interactions of massless particles which only involve their coupling energies at low energies. In this short paper we attempt to propose the Sagnac intrerferometric technique as a way of detecting the relativistic correction suggested for the Newtonian potential, and thus obtaining an estimate for phase difference using a satellite orbiting at an altitude of 250 km above the surface.

It is considered whether or not recent ultra high energy cosmic ray observations hint at the possibility that the unaccounted for higher energy rays have become dark matter.

Traditional theories on cosmology require a sufficient amount of CP violation, undiscovered matter particles and missing energy to explain what is observed in our universe today. Traditional theories on antimatter assume that if antimatter atoms existed, they would distort space-time in the same way as normal matter. However, gravitational forces between antimatter atoms have not yet been experimentally measured. This paper speculates on what might happen if antimatter distorts space-time opposite to normal matter. The repulsive force of the anti-hydrogen atoms in the voids between galaxies would cause those voids to expand and would exert additional forces pressing inward on the galaxies. Simulations of this model produce galaxy rotation curves which match what is observed today without the need for any Dark Matter. An explanation of the MOND paradigm is also provided.

A massive star is defined to be one with mass greater than ~ 8-10M_☉. Central to the on-going debate on how these objects [massive stars] come into being is the socalled Radiation Problem. For nearly forty years, it has been argued that the radiation field emanating from massive stars is high enough to cause a global reversal of direct radial in-fall of material onto the nascent star. We argue that only in the case of a non-spinning isolated star does the gravitational field of the nascent star overcome the radiation field. An isolated non-spinning star is a non-spinning star without any circumstellar material around it, and the gravitational field beyond its surface is described exactly by Newton's inverse square law. The supposed fact that massive stars have a gravitational field that is much stronger than their radiation field is drawn from the analysis of an isolated massive star. In this case the gravitational field is much stronger than the radiation field. This conclusion has been erroneously extended to the case of massive stars enshrouded in gas & dust. We find that, for the case of a non-spinning gravitating body where we take into consideration the circumstellar material, that at ~ 8 - 10M_☉, the radiation field will not reverse the radial in-fall of matter, but rather a stalemate between the radiation and gravitational field will be achieved, i.e. in-fall is halted but not reversed. This picture is very different from the common picture that is projected and accepted in the popular literature that at ~ 8-10M_☉, all the circumstellar material, from the surface of the star right up to the edge of the molecular core, is expected to be swept away by the radiation field. We argue that massive stars should be able to start their normal stellar processes if the molecular core from which they form has some rotation, because a rotating core exhibits an Azimuthally Symmetric Gravitational Field which causes there to be an accretion disk and along this disk. The radiation field cannot be much stronger than the gravitational field, hence this equatorial accretion disk becomes the channel via which the nascent massive star accretes all of its material.

Abstract This reading is part in a series on the Azimuthally Symmetric Theory of Gravitation (ASTG) set-out in Nyambuya (2010a). This theory is built on Laplace-Poisson's well known equation and it has been shown therein (Nyambuya 2010a) that the ASTG is capable of explaining - from a purely classical physics standpoint; the precession of the perihelion of solar planets as being a consequence of the azimuthal symmetry emerging from the spin of the Sun. This symmetry has and must have an influence on the emergent gravitational field. We show herein that the emergent equations from the ASTG - under some critical conditions determined by the spin - do possess repulsive gravitational fields in the polar regions of the gravitating body in question. This places the ASTG on an interesting pedal to infer the origins of outflows as a repulsive gravitational phenomena. Outflows are an ubiquitous phenomena found in star forming systems and their true origins is a question yet to be settled. Given the current thinking on their origins, the direction that the present reading takes is nothing short of an asymptotic break from conventional wisdom; at the very least, it is a complete paradigm shift as gravitation is not at all associated; let alone considered to have anything to do with the out-pour of matter but is thought to be an all-attractive force that tries only to squash matter together into a single point. Additionally, we show that the emergent Azimuthally Symmetric Gravitational Field from the ASTG strongly suggests a solution to the supposed Radiation Problem that is thought to be faced by massive stars in their process of formation. That is, at ~ 8 - 10M_☉, radiation from the nascent star is expected to halt the accretion of matter onto the nascent star. We show that in-falling material will fall onto the equatorial disk and from there, this material will be channelled onto the forming star via the equatorial plane thus accretion of mass continues well past the curtain value of ~ 8-10M_☉ albeit via the disk. Along the equatorial plane, the net force (with the radiation force included) on any material there-on right up-till the surface of the star, is directed toward the forming star, hence accretion of mass by the nascent star is un-hampered.

Quasars (Quasi Stellar Objects, abbreviated as QSOs) are still nowadays, close to half a century after their discovery, objects which are not completely understood. In this brief review a description of the pending problems, inconsistencies and caveats in the QSO's research is presented. The standard paradigm model based on the existence of very massive black holes that are responsible for the QSO's huge luminosities, resulting from to their cosmological redshifts, leaves many facts without explanation. There are several observations which lack a clear explanation, for instance: the absence of bright QSOs at low redshifts, a mysterious evolution not properly understood; the inconsistencies of the absorption lines, such as the dierent structure of the clouds along the QSO's line of sight and their tangential directions; the spatial correlation between QSOs and galaxies; and many others.

In this letter, we describe results of new high-resolution axisymmetric relativistic MHD simulations of Pulsar Wind Nebulae. The simulations reveal strong breakdown of the equatorial symmetry and highly variable structure of the pulsar wind termination shock. The synthetic synchrotron maps, constructed using a new more accurate approach, show striking similarity with the well known images of the Crab Nebula obtained by Chandra, and the Hubble Space Telescope. In addition to the jet-torus structure, these maps reproduce the Crab's famous moving wisps whose speed and rate of production agree with the observations. The variability is then analyzed using various statistical methods, including the method of structure function and wavelet transform. The results point towards the quasi-periodic behaviour with the periods of 1.5 - 3 yr and MHD turbulence on scales below 1 yr. The full account of this study will be presented in a follow up paper.

Let ω(i) be period of rotation of the i-th planet around the Sun (or ω_j(i) be period of rotation of j-th satellite around the i-th planet). From empirical observations it is known that within margins of experimental errors Σ_i n_iω(i) = 0 (or Σ_j n_jω_j(i) = 0) for some integers n_i (or n_j ), different for different satellite systems. These conditions, known as resonance conditions, make uses of theories such as KAM difficult to implement. The resonances in Solar System are similar to those encountered in old quantum mechanics where applications of methods of celestial mechanics to atomic and molecular physics were highly successful. With such a successes, the birth of new quantum mechanics is difficult to understand. In short, the rationale for its birth lies in simplicity with which the same type of calculations can be done using methods of quantum mechanics capable of taking care of resonances. The solution of quantization puzzle was found by Heisenberg. In this paper new uses of Heisenberg?s ideas are found. When superimposed with the equivalence principle of general relativity, they lead to quantum mechanical treatment of observed resonances in the Solar System. To test correctness of theoretical predictions the number of allowed stable orbits for planets and for equatorial stable orbits of satellites of heavy planets is calculated resulting in good agreement with observational data. In addition, the paper briefl?y discusses quantum mechanical nature of rings of heavy planets and potential usefulness of the obtained results for cosmology.

Radiation energy causes fluctuation of the molecules in vanes of the Crooks radiometer. Through this fluctuation, molecules of the vanes strike the adjacent air molecules and as reaction cause recoil of the vanes. It seems that this is also the mechanism of Nichols radiometer. But, in the vacuum of the space, there are not practically such molecules to be leaned by the striking molecules of the vanes of solar sails. So, the vanes will not recoiled to be propelled. It is shown that a comet’s tail and antitail are common tides produced by Sun rather than by radiation pressure.

TTwo models the membrane model and the equivalent model were used for the solution of some of the questions related to formation of the Solar System. Both models show that the planets create clusters in which lies a higher probability of origination of large masses. The rings and belt of asteroids between Mars and Jupiter and the belt of asteroids behind the Neptune track are the beginnings of these clusters. According to the equivalent model, the Solar System went through a different development than other extrasolar systems. Both models show the wave principle, which is the same for other planetary systems and systems of moons of large planets [1].

The recently published application of a diffusion equation to prediction of distances of planets in the solar system has been identified as a two-dimensional Coulomb problem. A different assignment of quantum numbers in the solar system has been proposed. This method has been applied to the moons of Jupiter on rescaling.

Three anomalies associated with the solar system, namely Pioneer anomaly [3], the evidence for shrinking of planetary orbits [7, 8, 9], and flyby anomaly [4] are discussed. The first anomaly is explained by a universal 1/r distribution of dark matter, second anomaly finds a trivial explanation in TGD based quantum model for planetary orbits as Bohr orbits with Bohr quantization reflecting macroscopically quantum coherent character of dark matter with a gigantic value of Planck constant [11]. Fly-by anomaly can be understood if planetary orbits are surrounded by a flux tube containing quantum coherent dark matter. Also spherical shells can be considered.